[논문]Fertilization and the oocyte-to-embryo transition in C. elegans

Marcello, Matthew R.; Singson, Andrew

doi:10.5483/bmbrep.2010.43.6.389

Fertilization and the oocyte-to-embryo transition in C. elegans 원문보기

BMB reports, v.43 no.6, 2010년, pp.389 - 399

Marcello, Matthew R. (Waksman Institute and Department of Genetics Rutgers University) , Singson, Andrew (Waksman Institute and Department of Genetics Rutgers University)

Abstract ▼ AI-Helper

Fertilization is a complex process comprised of numerous steps. During fertilization, two highly specialized and differentiated cells (sperm and egg) fuse and subsequently trigger the development of an embryo from a quiescent, arrested oocyte. Molecular interactions between the sperm and egg are necessary for regulating the developmental potential of an oocyte, and precise coordination and regulation of gene expression and protein function are critical for proper embryonic development. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has emerged as a valuable model system for identifying genes involved in fertilization and the oocyte-to-embryo transition as well as for understanding the molecular mechanisms that govern these processes. In this review, we will address current knowledge of the molecular underpinnings of gamete interactions during fertilization and the oocyte-to-embryo transition in C. elegans. We will also compare our knowledge of these processes in C. elegans to what is known about similar processes in mammalian, specifically mouse, model systems.

주제어

AI 본문요약
AI-Helper

* AI 자동 식별 결과로 적합하지 않은 문장이 있을 수 있으니, 이용에 유의하시기 바랍니다.

문제 정의

elegans shares many characteristics with mammalian fertilization, including the need for sperm activation in the female reproductive tract, internal fertilization and multiple egg activation events including a membrane block to polyspermy, cortical granule (CG) exocytosis, meiotic resumption, and activation and degradation of selected maternal mRNAs and proteins (Table 1) (1, 8, 13). In this review, we will discuss C. elegans as a model system for fertilization and the oocyte-to-embryo transition. We will highlight what is known about the molecular details of fertilization in C.

가설 설정

The spermatheca is outlined by red circles. (B) Male - The gonad is one-armed. Spermatids accumulate in the gonad and are stored in the vas deferens until ejaculation during mating.

참고문헌 (100)

Stitzel, M. L. and Seydoux, G. (2007) Regulation of the oocyte-to-zygote transition. Science 316, 407-408.

상세보기
de Kretser, D. M. (1997) Male infertility. Lancet 349, 787-790.

상세보기
O'Flynn O'Brien, K. L., Varghese, A. C. and Agarwal, A. (2010) The genetic causes of male factor infertility: a review. Fertil Steril 93, 1-12.

상세보기
Manetti, G. J. and Honig, S. C. (2010) Update on male hormonal contraception: is the vasectomy in jeopardy? Int. J. Impot. Res. 22, 159-170.

상세보기
Laprise, S. L. (2009) Implications of epigenetics and genomic imprinting in assisted reproductive technologies. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 76, 1006-1018.

상세보기
Grace, K. S. and Sinclair, K. D. (2009) Assisted reproductive technology, epigenetics, and long-term health: a developmental time bomb still ticking. Semin. Reprod. Med. 27, 409-416.

상세보기
Florman, H. M. and Ducibella, T. (2006) Fertilization in Mammals; in Knobil and Neill's Physiology of Reproduction. Neill, J. D. (ed.), Elsevier, San Diego, USA.
Singson, A., Hang, J. S. and Parry, J. M. (2008) Genes required for the common miracle of fertilization in Caenorhabditis elegans. Int. J. Dev. Biol. 52, 647-656.

상세보기
L'Hernault, S. W. (2006) Spermatogenesis; in Worm-Book: online review of C. elegans biology. Community, T. C. e. R. (ed.), http://www.wormbook.org.
Consortium, T. C. e. S. (1998) Genome sequence of the nematode C. elegans a platform for investigating biology. Science 282, 2012-2018.

상세보기
Sulston, J. E. and Horvitz, H. R. (1977) Post-embryonic cell lineages of the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans. Dev. Biol. 56, 110-156.

상세보기
Riddle, D. L., Blumenthal, T., Meyer, B. J. and Priess, J. R. (1997) C. elegans II, pp. 1222, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, USA.
Horner, V. L. and Wolfner, M. F. (2008) Transitioning from egg to embryo: triggers and mechanisms of egg activation. Dev. Dyn. 237, 527-544.

상세보기
Govindan, J. A. and Greenstein, D. (2007) Embryogenesis: anchors away! Curr. Biol. 17, R890-892.

상세보기
Yamamoto, I., Kosinski, M. E. and Greenstein, D. (2006) Start me up: cell signaling and the journey from oocyte to embryo in C. elegans. Dev. Dyn. 235, 571-585.

상세보기
Ikawa, M., Inoue, N., Benham, A. M. and Okabe, M. (2010) Fertilization: a sperm's journey to and interaction with the oocyte. J. Clin. Invest. 120, 984-994.

상세보기
Ward, S. and Carrel, J. S. (1979) Fertilization and sperm competition in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Dev. Biol. 73, 304-321.

상세보기
Singson, A. (2001) Every sperm is sacred: fertilization in Caenorhabditis elegans. Dev. Biol. 230, 101-109.

상세보기
Bembenek, J. N., Richie, C. T., Squirrell, J. M., Campbell, J. M., Eliceiri, K. W., Poteryaev, D., Spang, A., Golden, A. and White, J. G. (2007) Cortical granule exocytosis in C. elegans is regulated by cell cycle components including separase. Development 134, 3837-3848.

상세보기
L'Hernault S, W. (1997) Spermatogenesis; in C. Elegans II. Riddle, D. L., Blumenthal, T., Meyer, B. J. and Priess, J. R. (eds.), pp. 271-294, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, USA.
Nelson, G. A. and Ward, S. (1980) Vesicle fusion, pseudopod extension and amoeboid motility are induced in nematode spermatids by the ionophore monensin. Cell 19, 457-464.

상세보기
Ward, S., Hogan, E. and Nelson, G. A. (1983) The initiation of spermiogenesis in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Dev. Biol. 98, 70-79.

상세보기
Bandyopadhyay, J., Lee, J., Lee, J. I., Yu, J. R., Jee, C., Cho, J. H., Jung, S., Lee, M. H., Zannoni, S., Singson, A., Kim, D., H., Koo, H. S. and Ahnn, J. (2002) Calcineurin, a calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein phosphatase, is involved in movement, fertility, egg laying, and growth in caenorhabditis elegans. Mol. Biol. Cell 13, 3281- 3293.

상세보기
Washington, N. L. and Ward, S. (2006) FER-1 regulates Ca2+ -mediated membrane fusion during C. elegans spermatogenesis. J. Cell Sci. 119, 2552-2562.

상세보기
Kubagawa, H. M., Watts, J. L., Corrigan, C., Edmonds, J. W., Sztul, E., Browse, J. and Miller, M. A. (2006) Oocyte signals derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids control sperm recruitment in vivo. Nat. Cell Biol. 8, 1143-1148.

상세보기
Miller, M. A., Nguyen, V. Q., Lee, M. H., Kosinski, M., Schedl, T., Caprioli, R. M. and Greenstein, D. (2001) A sperm cytoskeletal protein that signals oocyte meiotic maturation and ovulation. Science 291, 2144-2147.

상세보기
Samuel, A. D., Murthy, V. N. and Hengartner, M. O. (2001) Calcium dynamics during fertilization in C. elegans. BMC Dev. Biol. 1, 8.

상세보기
Zannoni, S., L'Hernault, S. W. and Singson, A. W. (2003) Dynamic localization of SPE-9 in sperm: a protein required for sperm-oocyte interactions in Caenorhabditis elegans. BMC Dev. Biol. 3, 10.

상세보기
Goldstein, B. and Hird, S. N. (1996) Specification of the anteroposterior axis in Caenorhabditis elegans. Development 122, 1467-1474.
Jorgensen, E. M. and Mango, S. E. (2002) The art and design of genetic screens: caenorhabditis elegans. Nat. Rev. Genet. 3, 356-369.

상세보기
Nishimura, H. and L'Hernault, S. W. (2010) Spermatogenesis-defective (spe) mutants of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans provide clues to solve the puzzle of male germline functions during reproduction. Dev. Dyn. 239, 1502-1514.

상세보기
L'Hernault, S. W., Shakes, D. C. and Ward, S. (1988) Developmental genetics of chromosome I spermatogenesis-defective mutants in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Genetics 120, 435-452.

상세보기
Kadandale, P., Stewart-Michaelis, A., Gordon, S., Rubin, J., Klancer, R., Schweinsberg, P., Grant, B. D. and Singson, A. (2005) The egg surface LDL receptor repeatcontaining proteins EGG-1 and EGG-2 are required for fertilization in Caenorhabditis elegans. Curr. Biol. 15, 2222-2229.

상세보기
Singson, A., Mercer, K. B. and L'Hernault, S. W. (1998) The C. elegans spe-9 gene encodes a sperm transmembrane protein that contains EGF-like repeats and is required for fertilization. Cell 93, 71-79.

상세보기
Putiri, E., Zannoni, S., Kadandale, P. and Singson, A. (2004) Functional domains and temperature-sensitive mutations in SPE-9, an EGF repeat-containing protein required for fertility in Caenorhabditis elegans. Dev. Biol. 272, 448-459.

상세보기
Chatterjee, I., Richmond, A., Putiri, E., Shakes, D. C. and Singson, A. (2005) The Caenorhabditis elegans spe-38 gene encodes a novel four-pass integral membrane protein required for sperm function at fertilization. Development 132, 2795-2808.

상세보기
Roberts, T. M., Pavalko, F. M. and Ward, S. (1986) Membrane and cytoplasmic proteins are transported in the same organell complex during nematode spermatogenesis. J. Cell Biology 102, 1787-1796.

상세보기
Shakes, D. and Ward, S. (1989) Mutations that disrupt the morphogenesis and localization of a sperm-specific organelle in Caenorhabditis elegans. Developmental Biology 134, 307-316.

상세보기
Xu, X. Z. and Sternberg, P. W. (2003) A C. elegans sperm TRP protein required for sperm-egg interactions during fertilization. Cell 114, 285-297.

상세보기
Castellano, L. E., Trevino, C. L., Rodriguez, D., Serrano, C. J., Pacheco, J., Tsutsumi, V., Felix, R. and Darszon, A. (2003) Transient receptor potential (TRPC) channels in human sperm: expression, cellular localization and involvement in the regulation of flagellar motility. FEBS Lett. 541, 69-74.

상세보기
Jungnickel, M. K., Marrero, H., Birnbaumer, L., Lemos, J. R. and Florman, H. M. (2001) Trp2 regulates entry of Ca2+ into mouse sperm triggered by egg ZP3. Nat. Cell. Biol. 3, 499-502.

상세보기
Schindl, R. and Romanin, C. (2007) Assembly domains in TRP channels. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 35, 84-85.

상세보기
Beech, D. J., Bahnasi, Y. M., Dedman, A. M. and Al-Shawaf, E. (2009) TRPC channel lipid specificity and mechanisms of lipid regulation. Cell Calcium 45, 583-588.

상세보기
Kroft, T. L., Gleason, E. J. and L'Hernault S, W. (2005) The spe-42 gene is required for sperm-egg interactions during C. elegans fertilization and encodes a sperm-specific transmembrane protein. Dev. Biol. 286, 169-181.

상세보기
Miyamoto, T. (2006) The dendritic cell-specific transmembrane protein DC-STAMP is essential for osteoclast fusion and osteoclast bone-resorbing activity. Mod. Rheumatol. 16, 341-342.
Albert, T. K., Hanzawa, H., Legtenberg, Y. I., de Ruwe, M. J., van den Heuvel, F. A., Collart, M. A., Boelens, R. and Timmers, H. T. (2002) Identification of a ubiquitin-protein ligase subunit within the CCR4-NOT transcription repressor complex. EMBO J. 21, 355-364.

상세보기
Hanzawa, H., de Ruwe, M. J., Albert, T. K., van Der Vliet, P. C., Timmers, H. T. and Boelens, R. (2001) The structure of the C4C4 ring finger of human NOT4 reveals features distinct from those of C3HC4 RING fingers. J. Biol. Chem. 276, 10185-10190.

상세보기
Deshaies, R. J. and Joazeiro, C. A. (2009) RING domain E3 ubiquitin ligases. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 78, 399-434.

상세보기
Nykjaer, A. and Willnow, T. E. (2002) The low-density lipoprotein receptor gene family: a cellular Swiss army knife? Trends. Cell Biol. 12, 273-280.

상세보기
Vjugina, U. and Evans, J. P. (2008) New insights into the molecular basis of mammalian sperm-egg membrane interactions. Front. Biosci. 13, 462-476.

상세보기
Okabe, M., Adachi, T., Takada, K., Oda, H., Yagasaki, M., Kohama, Y. and Mimura, T. (1987) Capacitation-related changes in antigen distribution on mouse sperm heads and its relation to fertilization rate in vitro. J. Reprod. Immunol. 11, 91-100.

상세보기
Okabe, M., Yagasaki, M., Oda, H., Matzno, S., Kohama, Y. and Mimura, T. (1988) Effect of a monoclonal anti-mouse sperm antibody (OBF13) on the interaction of mouse sperm with zona-free mouse and hamster eggs. J. Reprod. Immunol. 13, 211-219.

상세보기
Inoue, N., Ikawa, M., Isotani, A. and Okabe, M. (2005) The immunoglobulin superfamily protein Izumo is required for sperm to fuse with eggs. Nature 434, 234-238.

상세보기
Inoue, N., Ikawa, M. and Okabe, M. (2008) Putative sperm fusion protein IZUMO and the role of N-glycosylation. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 377, 910-914.

상세보기
Sosnik, J., Miranda, P. V., Spiridonov, N. A., Yoon, S. Y., Fissore, R. A., Johnson, G. R. and Visconti, P. E. (2009) Tssk6 is required for Izumo relocalization and gamete fusion in the mouse. J. Cell Sci. 122, 2741-2749.

상세보기
Gadella, B. M., Tsai, P. S., Boerke, A. and Brewis, I. A. (2008) Sperm head membrane reorganisation during capacitation. Int. J. Dev. Biol. 52, 473-480.

상세보기
Toshimori, K., Saxena, D. K., Tanii, I. and Yoshinaga, K. (1998) An MN9 antigenic molecule, equatorin, is required for successful sperm-oocyte fusion in mice. Biol. Reprod. 59, 22-29.

상세보기
Ellerman, D. A., Pei, J., Gupta, S., Snell, W. J., Myles, D. and Primakoff, P. (2009) Izumo is part of a multiprotein family whose members form large complexes on mammalian sperm. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 76, 1188-1199.

상세보기
Le Naour, F., Rubinstein, E., Jasmin, C., Prenant, M. and Boucheix, C. (2000) Severely reduced female fertility in CD9-deficient mice. Science 287, 319-321.

상세보기
Miyado, K., Yamada, G., Yamada, S., Hasuwa, H., Nakamura, Y., Ryu, F., Suzuki, K., Kosai, K., Inoue, K., Ogura, A., Okabe, M. and Mekada, E. (2000) Requirement of CD9 on the egg plasma membrane for fertilization. Science 287, 321-324.

상세보기
Kaji, K., Oda, S., Shikano, T., Ohnuki, T., Uematsu, Y., Sakagami, J., Tada, N., Miyazaki, S. and Kudo, A. (2000) The gamete fusion process is defective in eggs of Cd9-deficient mice. Nat. Genet. 24, 279-282.

상세보기
Miyado, K., Yoshida, K., Yamagata, K., Sakakibara, K., Okabe, M., Wang, X., Miyamoto, K., Akutsu, H., Kondo, T., Takahashi, Y., Ban, T., Ito, C., Toshimori, K., Nakamura, A., Ito, M., Miyado, M., Mekada, E. and Umezawa, A. (2008) The fusing ability of sperm is bestowed by CD9-containing vesicles released from eggs in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 12921-12926.

상세보기
Barraud-Lange, V., Naud-Barriant, N., Bomsel, M., Wolf, J. P. and Ziyyat, A. (2007) Transfer of oocyte membrane fragments to fertilizing spermatozoa. FASEB J. 21, 3446-3449.

상세보기
Gupta, S., Primakoff, P. and Myles, D. G. (2009) Can the presence of wild-type oocytes during insemination rescue the fusion defect of CD9 null oocytes? Mol. Reprod. Dev. 76, 602.

상세보기
Ito, C., Yamatoya, K., Yoshida, K., Maekawa, M., Miyado, K. and Toshimori, K. (2010) Tetraspanin family protein CD9 in the mouse sperm: unique localization, appearance, behavior and fate during fertilization. Cell Tissue Res. 340, 583-594.

상세보기
McNally, K. L. and McNally, F. J. (2005) Fertilization initiates the transition from anaphase I to metaphase II during female meiosis in C. elegans. Dev. Biol. 282, 218-230.

상세보기
Golden, A., Sadler, P. L., Wallenfang, M. R., Schumacher, J. M., Hamill, D. R., Bates, G., Bowerman, B., Seydoux, G. and Shakes, D. C. (2000) Metaphase to anaphase (mat) transition-defective mutants in Caenorhabditis elegans. J. Cell Biol. 151, 1469-1482.

상세보기
Browning, H. and Strome, S. (1996) A sperm-supplied factor required for embryogenesis in C. elegans. Development 122, 391-404.
Hill, D. P., Shakes, D. C., Ward, S. and Strome, S. (1989) A sperm-supplied product essential for initiation of normal embryogenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans is encoded by the paternal-effect embryonic-lethal gene, spe-11 [published erratum appears in Dev Biol 1990 May;139(1):230]. Dev. Biol. 136, 154-166.

상세보기
Jantsch-Plunger, V., Gonczy, P., Romano, A., Schnabel, H., Hamill, D., Schnabel, R., Hyman, A. A. and Glotzer, M. (2000) CYK-4: A Rho family gtpase activating protein (GAP) required for central spindle formation and cytokinesis. J. Cell Biol. 149, 1391-1404.

상세보기
Jenkins, N., Saam, J. R. and Mango, S. E. (2006) CYK-4/GAP provides a localized cue to initiate anteroposterior polarity upon fertilization. Science 313, 1298-1301.

상세보기
Maruyama, R., Velarde, N. V., Klancer, R., Gordon, S., Kadandale, P., Parry, J. M., Hang, J. S., Rubin, J., Stewart-Michaelis, A., Schweinsberg, P., Grant, B. D., Piano, F., Sugimoto, A. and Singson, A. (2007) EGG-3 regulates cell-surface and cortex rearrangements during egg activation in Caenorhabditis elegans. Curr. Biol. 17, 1555-1560.

상세보기
Parry, J. M., Velarde, N. V., Lefkovith, A. J., Zegarek, M. H., Hang, J. S., Ohm, J., Klancer, R., Maruyama, R., Druzhinina, M. K., Grant, B. D., Piano, F. and Singson, A. (2009) EGG-4 and EGG-5 Link Events of the Oocyte-to-Embryo Transition with Meiotic Progression in C. elegans. Curr. Biol. 19, 1752-1757.

상세보기
Stitzel, M. L., Cheng, K. C. and Seydoux, G. (2007) Regulation of MBK-2/Dyrk kinase by dynamic cortical anchoring during the oocyte-to-zygote transition. Curr. Biol. 17, 1545-1554.

상세보기
Cheng, K. C., Klancer, R., Singson, A. and Seydoux, G. (2009) Regulation of MBK-2/DYRK by CDK-1 and the pseudophosphatases EGG-4 and EGG-5 during the oocyte-to-embryo transition. Cell 139, 560-572.

상세보기
Tonks, N. K. (2009) Pseudophosphatases: grab and hold on. Cell 139, 464-465.

상세보기
Pils, B. and Schultz, J. (2004) Evolution of the multifunctional protein tyrosine phosphatase family. Mol. Biol. Evol. 21, 625-631.

상세보기
Tonks, N. K. (2006) Protein tyrosine phosphatases: from genes, to function, to disease. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell. Biol. 7, 833-846.

상세보기
Harris, M. T., Lai, K., Arnold, K., Martinez, H. F., Specht, C. A. and Fuhrman, J. A. (2000) Chitin synthase in the filarial parasite, Brugia malayi. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 111, 351-362.

상세보기
Veronico, P., Gray, L. J., Jones, J. T., Bazzicalupo, P., Arbucci, S., Cortese, M. R., Di Vito, M. and De Giorgi, C. (2001) Nematode chitin synthases: gene structure, expression and function in Caenorhabditis elegans and the plant parasitic nematode Meloidogyne artiellia. Mol. Genet. Genomics. 266, 28-34.

상세보기
Zhang, Y., Foster, J. M., Nelson, L. S., Ma, D. and Carlow, C. K. (2005) The chitin synthase genes chs-1 and chs-2 are essential for C. elegans development and responsible for chitin deposition in the eggshell and pharynx, respectively. Dev. Biol. 285, 330-339.

상세보기
Guven-Ozkan, T., Nishi, Y., Robertson, S. M. and Lin, R. (2008) Global transcriptional repression in C. elegans germline precursors by regulated sequestration of TAF-4. Cell 135, 149-160.

상세보기
Nishi, Y., Rogers, E., Robertson, S. M. and Lin, R. (2008) Polo kinases regulate C. elegans embryonic polarity via binding to DYRK2-primed MEX-5 and MEX-6. Development 135, 687-697.

상세보기
Pang, K. M., Ishidate, T., Nakamura, K., Shirayama, M., Trzepacz, C., Schubert, C. M., Priess, J. R. and Mello, C. C. (2004) The minibrain kinase homolog, mbk-2, is required for spindle positioning and asymmetric cell division in early C. elegans embryos. Dev. Biol. 265, 127-139.

상세보기
Pellettieri, J., Reinke, V., Kim, S. K. and Seydoux, G. (2003) Coordinate activation of maternal protein degradation during the egg-to-embryo transition in C. elegans. Dev. Cell 5, 451-462.

상세보기
Quintin, S., Mains, P. E., Zinke, A. and Hyman, A. A. (2003) The mbk-2 kinase is required for inactivation of MEI-1/katanin in the one-cell Caenorhabditis elegans embryo. EMBO Rep. 4, 1175-1181.

상세보기
Srayko, M., Buster, D. W., Bazirgan, O. A., McNally, F. J. and Mains, P. E. (2000) MEI-1/MEI-2 katanin-like microtubule severing activity is required for Caenorhabditis elegans meiosis. Genes. Dev. 14, 1072-1084.

상세보기
Saunders, C. M., Larman, M. G., Parrington, J., Cox, L. J., Royse, J., Blayney, L. M., Swann, K. and Lai, F. A. (2002) PLC zeta: a sperm-specific trigger of Ca(2+) oscillations in eggs and embryo development. Development 129, 3533-3544.
Swann, K., Saunders, C. M., Rogers, N. T. and Lai, F. A. (2006) PLCzeta (zeta): a sperm protein that triggers Ca2+ oscillations and egg activation in mammals. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 17, 264-273.

상세보기
Ducibella, T. and Fissore, R. (2008) The roles of Ca2+, downstream protein kinases, and oscillatory signaling in regulating fertilization and the activation of development. Dev. Biol. 315, 257-279.

상세보기
Liu, J. and Maller, J. L. (2005) Calcium elevation at fertilization coordinates phosphorylation of XErp1/Emi2 by Plx1 and CaMK II to release metaphase arrest by cytostatic factor. Curr. Biol. 15, 1458-1468.

상세보기
Rauh, N. R., Schmidt, A., Bormann, J., Nigg, E. A. and Mayer, T. U. (2005) Calcium triggers exit from meiosis II by targeting the APC/C inhibitor XErp1 for degradation. Nature 437, 1048-1052.

상세보기
Hansen, D. V., Tung, J. J. and Jackson, P. K. (2006) CaMKII and polo-like kinase 1 sequentially phosphorylate the cytostatic factor Emi2/XErp1 to trigger its destruction and meiotic exit. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 608-613.

상세보기
Wessel, G. M., Brooks, J. M., Green, E., Haley, S., Voronina, E., Wong, J., Zaydfudim, V. and Conner, S. (2001) The biology of cortical granules. Int. Rev. Cytol. 209, 117-206.
Matson, S., Markoulaki, S. and Ducibella, T. (2006) Antagonists of myosin light chain kinase and of myosin II inhibit specific events of egg activation in fertilized mouse eggs. Biol. Reprod. 74, 169-176.

상세보기
Sato, M., Grant, B. D., Harada, A. and Sato, K. (2008) Rab11 is required for synchronous secretion of chondroitin proteoglycans after fertilization in Caenorhabditis elegans. J. Cell Sci. 121, 3177-3186.

상세보기
Gardner, A. J., Williams, C. J. and Evans, J. P. (2007) Establishment of the mammalian membrane block to polyspermy: evidence for calcium-dependent and -independent regulation. Reproduction 133, 383-393.

상세보기
Gardner, A. J., Knott, J. G., Jones, K. T. and Evans, J. P. (2007) CaMKII can participate in but is not sufficient for the establishment of the membrane block to polyspermy in mouse eggs. J. Cell Physiol. 212, 275-280.

상세보기
Wortzman-Show, G. B., Kurokawa, M., Fissore, R. A. and Evans, J. P. (2007) Calcium and sperm components in the establishment of the membrane block to polyspermy: studies of ICSI and activation with sperm factor. Mol. Hum. Reprod. 13, 557-565.

상세보기
Gardner, A. J. and Evans, J. P. (2006) Mammalian membrane block to polyspermy: new insights into how mammalian eggs prevent fertilisation by multiple sperm. Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 18, 53-61.

상세보기

표제어: PCR

동의어: Packet Collision Rate

용어 설명 출처 목록 (6)

용어 설명: PCR은 세균 특이성이 있는 primer를 이용하여 적은 수의 세균이 있을지라도 쉽게 검출할 수 있는 유용한 방법이며, 이를 이용하여 구강 내 치면세균막이나 타액에서 직접 세균을 검출할 수 있게 되었다[8].

내보내기 구분	파일저장 인쇄 메일전송
구성항목	기본정보 상세정보 관리번호, 논문명, 저널/프로시딩명, 저자 , 발행년, 권, 호, 시작페이지, 끝페이지, 발행기관 관리번호, 논문명, 대등논문명, 저자 , 저널/프로시딩명, 발행기관, 발행년, 발행언어, 권, 호, 시작페이지, 끝페이지, ISBN, ISSN, 주제분야, 키워드, 초록(한글), 초록(영문), 저자(소속기관)
저장형식	Text(ASCII format) Excel format RefWorks Direct Export RIS format (for Reference Manager, ProCite, EndNote), Scholar's Aids, Mendeley
메일정보	받는사람 (필수) @ 보내는사람 (선택) @ 제목 내용 KISTI 검색결과 이메일 서비스
안내	총 건의 자료가 검색되었습니다. 다운받으실 자료의 인덱스를 입력하세요. (1-10,000) 검색결과의 순서대로 최대 10,000건 까지 다운로드가 가능합니다. 데이타가 많을 경우 속도가 느려질 수 있습니다.(최대 2~3분 소요) 다운로드 파일은 UTF-8 형태로 저장됩니다. 파일의 내용이 제대로 보이지 않을실 때는 웹브라우저 상단의 보기 -> 인코딩 -> 자동선택 여부를 확인하십시오. ~ Text(ASCII format) Excel format

연합인증