$\require{mediawiki-texvc}$

연합인증

연합인증 가입 기관의 연구자들은 소속기관의 인증정보(ID와 암호)를 이용해 다른 대학, 연구기관, 서비스 공급자의 다양한 온라인 자원과 연구 데이터를 이용할 수 있습니다.

이는 여행자가 자국에서 발행 받은 여권으로 세계 각국을 자유롭게 여행할 수 있는 것과 같습니다.

연합인증으로 이용이 가능한 서비스는 NTIS, DataON, Edison, Kafe, Webinar 등이 있습니다.

한번의 인증절차만으로 연합인증 가입 서비스에 추가 로그인 없이 이용이 가능합니다.

다만, 연합인증을 위해서는 최초 1회만 인증 절차가 필요합니다. (회원이 아닐 경우 회원 가입이 필요합니다.)

연합인증 절차는 다음과 같습니다.

최초이용시에는
ScienceON에 로그인 → 연합인증 서비스 접속 → 로그인 (본인 확인 또는 회원가입) → 서비스 이용

그 이후에는
ScienceON 로그인 → 연합인증 서비스 접속 → 서비스 이용

연합인증을 활용하시면 KISTI가 제공하는 다양한 서비스를 편리하게 이용하실 수 있습니다.

International Patterns in National Identity Content: The Case of Japanese Banknote Iconography

Journal of East Asian studies, v.5 no.2, 2005년, pp.315 - 346  

Hymans, Jacques E. C.

Abstract ▼ AI-Helper 아이콘AI-Helper

The present article suggests that expressions of Japanese identity may be more malleable and receptive to international influences than is usually thought. Through a study of the evolution of images printed on Japanese banknotes and of the political processes behind that evolution, the article shows...

참고문헌 (77)

  1. In my interviews it was apparent that the effects of the iconographic choices on Japan's OECD brethren were considered much more fully than their effects on Japan's East Asian neighbors. 

  2. Frewer , “Japanese Postage Stamps as Social Agents”; Dobson , “Japanese Postage Stamps.” 

  3. Gurowitz, Amy. Mobilizing International Norms: Domestic Actors, Immigrants, and the Japanese State. World politics, vol.51, no.3, 413-445.

    상세보기 crossref

  4. 10.2307/3591936 See, for instance, Dore , “The Internationalisation of Japan”; Pekkanen Saadia , “International Law, the WTO, and the Japanese State: Assessment and Implications of the New Legalized Trade Politics,” Journal of Japanese Studies 27, no. 1 (Winter 2001): 41-79. 

    상세보기 crossref

  5. Interview with current MOF official, Tokyo, May 2003. 

  6. CBS News, “Japanese Feminist to Adorn Yen,” August 2, 2002, available at http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/08/02/world/printable5187343.shtml. 

  7. Interview with former MOF official, Tokyo, May 2003. 

  8. The one exception was in the 1996 survey, in which only 44.5 percent declared themselves satisfied and 18.1 percent wanted major change. 

  9. Journal of East Asian Studies “After the Developmental State: Civil Society in Japan,” 4 363 2004 10.1017/S1598240800006019 Pekkanen 

    상세보기 crossref

  10. However, some foreigners did notice the meaning of both Murasaki and the numeral two. “Japan's Other Currency Woes,” The Economist, October 30, 1999 (accessed on Lexis-Nexis). 

  11. Bank of Japan Currency Museum, “The Numeral Two in Currency: A Special Exhibition of Notes and Coins of Denominations Starting with the Numeral Two,” available at http://www.imes.boj.or.jp/cm/pdffiles/02kikakul.pdf. 

  12. Interview with former Printing Bureau official, Tokyo, May 2003. 

  13. On this point, one small incident speaks volumes. I asked one former Treasury Division official what foreign country's banknotes he personally preferred, and he answered, “I pay mostly by credit card.” Interview with former MOF official, Tokyo, May 2003. 

  14. Interview with former MOF official, Tokyo, May 2003. 

  15. Japan Economic Newswire, July 7, 1981 (accessed on Lexis-Nexis). 

  16. Indeed, in the slang of the day, rich people were said to have a lot of “Shotoku-Taishis.” Thanks to Kage Yuji for this example. 

  17. Interview with former Printing Bureau official, Tokyo, May 2003. These arguments mirror those of the more “conservative” side of the European jury that reviewed the draft euro designs. See Hymans , “Money for Mars? The Euro and European Identity.” 

  18. Interview with former Printing Bureau official, Tokyo, May 2003. 

  19. Interview with former MOF official, Tokyo, May 2003. 

  20. Interview with former Printing Bureau official, Tokyo, May 2003. 

  21. Interview with former MOF official, Tokyo, May 2003. 

  22. Japan: A State Strategy for the 21st Century 2002 Yasuhiro 

  23. See Hymans , “Money for Mars?” 

  24. Interview with former MOF official, Tokyo, May 2003. 

  25. Machiavelli's Children: Leaders and Their Legacies in Italy and Japan 2003 Samuels 

  26. Interview with former MOF official, Tokyo, May 2003. 

  27. Encarnation, Dennis J., Mason, Mark. Neither MITI nor America: the political economy of capital liberalization in Japan. International organization, vol.44, no.1, 25-54.

    상세보기 crossref

  28. Interview with former Printing Bureau official, Tokyo, May 2003. 

  29. Bank of Japan, “The Introduction of New Series Bank of Japan Notes,” August 2, 2002, available at http://www.boj.or.jp/en/money/money_f.htm. 

  30. Of course, Lady Murasaki was far from traditional for her own time, but her association with Japanese courtly life clearly makes her a traditionalist symbol in the contemporary period. The reader will recall the coding decision mentioned above to code any figures from ancient or feudal Japan as “traditionalist.” 

  31. The coding rules impose these interpretations, but for those deeply schooled in Japanese history, they are open to question. It is a stretch to code Genji, Murasaki Shikibu's hedonistic protagonist, as representing the “state,” even if he was the son of an emperor. Meanwhile, as will be suggested in the process tracing of the selection of these individuals, Nitobe was not merely a diplomat. But although this or that coding choice can be questioned, the overall direction of yen iconography is clear. 

  32. Ninomiya Sontoku is most renowned as the “ideal schoolboy,” but in this rendering he is an old man. Since in his later years he served as a government minister, the depiction of him as an old man reinforces my coding decision to count him in the “state” category. 

  33. As in the European cases, for the sake of clear coding I coded any depicted human figure who served in an important position in the state as a “state representative,” even if he or she was arguably more famous for some nonpolitical pursuit. I also coded representations of gods as representing the “state,” since gods are the rulers of the universe. 

  34. Sixty-four of the seventy-one banknotes featured at least one human figure. One of the notes featured three human figures; these are counted as separate observations in the data set. Of the seven notes without human figures, two are from the 1920s and five are from the unsettled period 1944-1948. 

  35. It will eventually be important to disentangle the relative causal weight of the “push” factors of economic development-driven values change highlighted by Inglehart, or the “pull” factors of international normative evolution highlighted by Meyer. The process-tracing portion of this study provides some evidence on the matter. But the most direct way to confront it would be to extend the research to the banknote iconographies of developing countries, whose societies may not be ready to embrace developed-country norms, yet whose states are still subject to strong international pressures to conform to those norms. 

  36. Inglehart is ambiguous about whether postmaterialist and postmodern goals are synonyms. I interpret postmodernism as pushing somewhat beyond the quality of life focus of postmaterialism. In my interpretation, postmaterialism still assumes an objective, universal standard of quality of life, whereas postmodernism understands quality of life to be in the eye of the beholder. 

  37. The focus on human figures stems from the fact that these are typically the most salient iconographic elements on banknotes, and from the fact that these are typically more readily identifiable and classifiable than other elements. Human figures thus generally serve as excellent proxies for the overall philosophical and aesthetic message that the banknotes communicate. 

  38. Modernization and Postmodernization: Cultural, Economic and Political Change in 43 Societies 1997 10.1515/9780691214429 Inglehart 

    crossref

  39. Hymans , “The Changing Color of Money.” 

  40. Eskildsen, R.. Of Civilization and Savages: The Mimetic Imperialism of Japan's 1874 Expedition to Taiwan. The American historical review, vol.107, no.2, 388-418.

    상세보기 crossref

  41. Ferber, Katalin. 'Run the State Like a Business': The Origin of the Deposit Fund in Meiji Japan. Japanese studies, vol.22, no.2, 131-151.

    상세보기 crossref

  42. “Higuchi 1st Woman on Postwar Bill,” The Daily Yomiuri, August 3, 2002 (accessed on Lexis-Nexis). 

  43. The Geography of Money 1998 Cohen 

  44. The Political Economy of Japan, vol. 2: The Changing International Context 467 1988 Pyle 

  45. The Making of National Money: Territorial Currencies in Historical Perspective 2003 Helleiner 

  46. Frewer, Douglas. Japanese postage stamps as social agents: some anthropological perspectives. Japan forum, vol.14, no.1, 1-19.

    상세보기 crossref

  47. Duus, Peter. Presidential Address: Weapons of the Weak, Weapons of the Strong-The Development of the Japanese Political Cartoon. The Journal of Asian Studies, vol.60, no.4, 965-997.

    상세보기 crossref

  48. BBC Summary of World Broadcasts , “Prime Minister Makes Post-cabinet Change Statement.” 

  49. Interviews with MOF and Printing Bureau officials, Tokyo, May 2003. See also the speculation to this effect in “New Banknotes to Feature Notorious Debtors,” Asahi Shimbun, August 6, 2002 (accessed on Lexis-Nexis). 

  50. Foreign Policy “Japan's Gross National Cool,” 130 45 2002 McGray 

  51. This structure is just now changing. The Printing Bureau, formerly part of the Ministry of Finance, is now to become an independent agency responsible for paying for itself. It is unclear how this change will affect the magnitude and direction of its political influence. 

  52. Daikoku-ten is a god and thus coded as representing the state. However, his appeal was largely to Japanese commoners rather than to elites. In that regard, a case could be made for coding those images in the “society” category. Thanks to Rob Eskildsen for raising this point. 

  53. In addition to this simple application of the coding rules (modern politician = “materialist”), it seems legitimate to describe these actors as “materialist” in the specific Japanese context, because of the extreme focus in the Meiji restoration period on pursuing Japan's material progress. 

  54. Indeed, when the new project was unveiled a year later, some of them expressed anger at not having been consulted. Interview with former MOF official, Tokyo, May 2003. 

  55. The Year of the Euro: The Social and Political Import of Europe's Common Currency 2005 Hymans 

  56. Of course, as previously emphasized, drawing overly broad conclusions from one indicator would be a mistake, but refusing to put forth any tentative lessons at this stage would be equally mistaken. 

  57. Banknote Engravers of Japan: E. Chiossone, S. Oyama, K. Kato 2001 Takashi 

  58. Also important to mention in this context is the Japanese state tendency toward banishing the thought of regional, ethnic, class, or other differences within the Japanese body politic. Thanks to Rob Eskildsen for suggesting this point. 

  59. “Jottings” (Henshu Techo), The Daily Yomiuri, October 9, 1999 (accessed on Lexis-Nexis). 

  60. For instance, even to this day the Printing Bureau actually engraves its banknote designs rather than using a computer. Interview with current Printing Bureau official, Tokyo, May 2003. 

  61. It is certainly the case that Fukuzawa and Natsume had political agendas-and in some respects quite militaristic ones. But these men were public intellectuals, not politicians who dabbled in the arts. 

  62. “Identity as a Variable,” 2003 Abdelal 

  63. BBC Summary of World Broadcasts , “Prime Minister Makes Post-cabinet Change Statement,” October 7, 1999 (accessed on Lexis-Nexis). 

  64. Hymans, Jacques E.C.. The Changing Color of Money: European Currency Iconography and Collective Identity. European journal of international relations, vol.10, no.1, 5-31.

    상세보기 crossref

  65. Interview with former MOF official, Tokyo, May 2003. 

  66. As Sheldon Garon has pointed out, the Japanese state does not merely penetrate but is also deeply penetrated by the broader society and its values-and, indeed, often by the more progressive elements in it. Garon , Molding Japanese Minds, especially pp. 18-21. 

  67. Standard Catalog of World Paper Money, vol. 2: General Issues 1994 Pick 

  68. Banal Nationalism 1995 Billig 

  69. Between 1885 and 2004, Japan on average has issued 0.6 new banknote per year. This rate of turnover is slightly lower than the EU nations' average of 0.7 new banknote per year. 

  70. The first yen banknotes were printed in 1872, a clear consequence of Japan's adoption of world norms of territorial currency; on this, see Helleiner , The Making of National Money. However, the Bank of Japan (Nippon Ginko) was not founded as a central bank and sole legitimate issuer until 1882, and it issued its first notes in 1885. I choose to focus only on the Bank of Japan banknotes in order to maintain comparability with the central bank banknotes used as the data in the European cases. 

  71. Extensively described in Hymans , “The Changing Color of Money.” 

  72. Die Rolle des Geldes in Japans Gesellschaft, Wirtschaft und Politik 77 1998 Brumann 

  73. Japan's Quest: The Search for International Role, Recognition, and Respect 5 1997 Tamamoto 

  74. 10.1016/S0030-4387(96)90062-9 Johnson Chalmers , “Artificial Cartels of the Mind Justify Distrust of Japan,” International Herald Tribune, June 16, 1993, cited in Itoh Mayumi , “Japan's Abiding Sakoku Mentality,” Orbis 40, no. 2 (Spring 1996): 235-247. For other than economic matters, Peter Katzenstein also seems to endorse this view; see Katzenstein , Cultural Norms and National Security , pp. 81-82. 

    상세보기 crossref

  75. Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany 1992 10.4159/9780674028944 Brubaker 

    crossref

  76. The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture 1946 Benedict 

  77. Cultural Norms and National Security: Police and Military in Postwar Japan 1996 Katzenstein 

관련 콘텐츠

섹션별 컨텐츠 바로가기

AI-Helper ※ AI-Helper는 오픈소스 모델을 사용합니다.

AI-Helper 아이콘
AI-Helper
안녕하세요, AI-Helper입니다. 좌측 "선택된 텍스트"에서 텍스트를 선택하여 요약, 번역, 용어설명을 실행하세요.
※ AI-Helper는 부적절한 답변을 할 수 있습니다.

선택된 텍스트

맨위로