[논문]Effects of subclinical depression on prefrontal–striatal model-based and model-free learning

Heo, Suyeon; Sung, Yoondo; Lee, Sang Wan

doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009003

[해외논문] Effects of subclinical depression on prefrontal–striatal model-based and model-free learning 원문보기

PLoS computational biology, v.17 no.5, 2021년, pp.e1009003 -

Heo, Suyeon (Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea) , Sung, Yoondo (Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea) , Lee, Sang Wan (Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea)

Abstract ▼ AI-Helper

Depression is characterized by deficits in the reinforcement learning (RL) process. Although many computational and neural studies have extended our knowledge of the impact of depression on RL, most focus on habitual control (model-free RL), yielding a relatively poor understanding of goal-directed control (model-based RL) and arbitration control to find a balance between the two. We investigated the effects of subclinical depression on model-based and model-free learning in the prefrontal–striatal circuitry. First, we found that subclinical depression is associated with the attenuated state and reward prediction error representation in the insula and caudate. Critically, we found that it accompanies the disrupted arbitration control between model-based and model-free learning in the predominantly inferior lateral prefrontal cortex and frontopolar cortex. We also found that depression undermines the ability to exploit viable options, called exploitation sensitivity. These findings characterize how subclinical depression influences different levels of the decision-making hierarchy, advancing previous conflicting views that depression simply influences either habitual or goal-directed control. Our study creates possibilities for various clinical applications, such as early diagnosis and behavioral therapy design.Author summaryHuman decision making is known to be driven by at least two distinct processes, goal-directed and habitual learning. Previous studies argued that these systems and their interaction are disrupted in depression. However, we have limited understanding of the integration of the two systems and how this case extends to early or mild depression. We used a computational model and fMRI to address this issue. We found that depression-related changes were observed in the different levels of the decision making process. Notably, we found that depressive individuals have higher sensitivity of the habitual learning process, indicating the impairment of the proper integration of the two. Our findings raise the hope about developing clinical applications for the early diagnosis of this disorder, as well as using behavioral/cognitive therapy or brain stimulus techniques for restoring the balance between goal-directed and habitual learning in individuals with subclinical depression.

참고문헌 (86)

1 Lim GY , Tam WW , Lu Y , Ho CS , Zhang MW , Ho RC . Prevalence of Depression in the Community from 30 Countries between 1994 and 2014 . Sci Rep . 2018 Feb ; 8 ( 1 ): 2861 . 10.1038/s41598-018-21243-x 29434331

상세보기
2 Leykin Y , Roberts CS , DeRubeis RJ . Decision-Making and Depressive Symptomatology . Cognit Ther Res [Internet]. 2011 8 4 ; 35 ( 4 ): 333 – 41 . Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3132433/ 10.1007/s10608-010-9308-0 21841849

상세보기
3 Must A , Horvath S , Nemeth VL , Janka Z . The Iowa Gambling Task in depression—what have we learned about sub-optimal decision-making strategies? Front Psychol . 2013 10 ; 4 : 732 . 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00732 24133474

상세보기
4 Admon R , Pizzagalli DA . Dysfunctional Reward Processing in Depression. Curr Opin Psychol . 2015 Aug ; 4 : 114 – 8 . 10.1016/j.copsyc.2014.12.011 26258159

상세보기
5 Sutton RS , Barto AG . Introduction to Reinforcement Learning . 1st ed . Cambridge, MA, USA : MIT Press ; 1998 .
6 Daw ND , Niv Y , Dayan P . Uncertainty-based competition between prefrontal and dorsolateral striatal systems for behavioral control . Nat Neurosci . 2005 ; 8 ( 12 ): 1704 – 11 . 10.1038/nn1560 16286932

상세보기
7 Lee D , Seo H , Jung MW . Neural basis of reinforcement learning and decision making . Annu Rev Neurosci [Internet]. 2012/03/29. 2012 ; 35 : 287 – 308 . Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22462543 10.1146/annurev-neuro-062111-150512 22462543

상세보기
8 Doya K , Samejima K , Katagiri K , Kawato M . Multiple Model-Based Reinforcement Learning . Neural Comput [Internet]. 2002 ; 14 ( 6 ): 1347 – 69 . Available from: http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/10.1162/089976602753712972 12020450

상세보기
9 Markman K , Miller A . Depression, Control, and Counterfactual Thinking: Functional for Whom? J Soc Clin Psychol . 2006 2 1 ; 25 . 10.1521/jscp.2006.25.4.404 21532983

상세보기
10 Quelhas AC , Power MJ , Juhos C , Senos J . Counterfactual thinking and functional differences in depression . Clin Psychol Psychother . 2008 ; 15 ( 5 ): 352 – 65 . 10.1002/cpp.593 19115454

상세보기
11 Huys QJM , Daw ND , Dayan P . Depression: a decision-theoretic analysis . Annu Rev Neurosci . 2015 7 ; 38 : 1 – 23 . 10.1146/annurev-neuro-071714-033928 25705929

상세보기
12 Maddox WT , Chandrasekaran B , Smayda K , Yi H-G , Koslov S , Beevers CG . Elevated Depressive Symptoms Enhance Reflexive but not Reflective Auditory Category Learning . Cortex [Internet]. 2014 9 25 ; 58 : 186 – 98 . Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4130789/ 10.1016/j.cortex.2014.06.013 25041936

상세보기
13 Kumar P , Waiter G , Ahearn T , Milders M , Reid I , Steele JD . Abnormal temporal difference reward-learning signals in major depression . Brain . 2008 8 ; 131 ( Pt 8 ): 2084 – 93 . 10.1093/brain/awn136 18579575

상세보기
14 Gradin VB , Kumar P , Waiter G , Ahearn T , Stickle C , Milders M , et al . Expected value and prediction error abnormalities in depression and schizophrenia . Brain . 2011 6 ; 134 ( Pt 6 ): 1751 – 64 . 10.1093/brain/awr059 21482548

상세보기
15 Rothkirch M , Tonn J , Kohler S , Sterzer P . Neural mechanisms of reinforcement learning in unmedicated patients with major depressive disorder . Brain . 2017 4 ; 140 ( 4 ): 1147 – 57 . 10.1093/brain/awx025 28334960

상세보기
16 Ubl B , Kuehner C , Kirsch P , Ruttorf M , Diener C , Flor H . Altered neural reward and loss processing and prediction error signalling in depression . Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2015 8 ; 10 ( 8 ): 1102 – 12 . 10.1093/scan/nsu158 25567763

상세보기
17 Kumar P , Goer F , Murray L , Dillon DG , Beltzer ML , Cohen AL , et al . Impaired reward prediction error encoding and striatal-midbrain connectivity in depression . Neuropsychopharmacology [Internet]. 2018 ; 43 ( 7 ): 1581 – 8 . Available from: 10.1038/s41386-018-0032-x 29540863

상세보기
18 Chase HW , Frank MJ , Michael A , Bullmore ET , Sahakian BJ , Robbins TW . Approach and avoidance learning in patients with major depression and healthy controls: relation to anhedonia . Psychol Med . 2010 3 ; 40 ( 3 ): 433 – 40 . 10.1017/S0033291709990468 19607754

상세보기
19 Plieger T , Melchers M , Montag C , Meermann R , Reuter M . Life stress as potential risk factor for depression and burnout . Burn Res [Internet]. 2015 ; 2 ( 1 ): 19 – 24 . Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213058614200088

상세보기
20 Radley JJ , Kabbaj M , Jacobson L , Heydendael W , Yehuda R , Herman JP . STRESS RISK FACTORS AND STRESS-RELATED PATHOLOGY: NEUROPLASTICITY, EPIGENETICS AND ENDOPHENOTYPES . Stress [Internet]. 2011 9 ; 14 ( 5 ): 481 – 97 . Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3641164/ 10.3109/10253890.2011.604751 21848436

상세보기
21 Dias-Ferreira E , Sousa JC , Melo I , Morgado P , Mesquita AR , Cerqueira JJ , et al . Chronic stress causes frontostriatal reorganization and affects decision-making . Science . 2009 7 ; 325 ( 5940 ): 621 – 5 . 10.1126/science.1171203 19644122

상세보기
22 Radenbach C , Reiter AMF , Engert V , Sjoerds Z , Villringer A , Heinze H-J , et al . The interaction of acute and chronic stress impairs model-based behavioral control . Psychoneuroendocrinology . 2015 3 ; 53 : 268 – 80 . 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.12.017 25662093

상세보기
23 Schwabe L , Wolf OT . Stress-induced modulation of instrumental behavior: from goal-directed to habitual control of action . Behav Brain Res . 2011 6 ; 219 ( 2 ): 321 – 8 . 10.1016/j.bbr.2010.12.038 21219935

상세보기
24 Otto AR , Raio CM , Chiang A , Phelps EA , Daw ND . Working-memory capacity protects model-based learning from stress . Proc Natl Acad Sci [Internet]. 2013 12 24 ; 110 ( 52 ): 20941 LP – 20946 . Available from: http://www.pnas.org/content/110/52/20941.abstract 10.1073/pnas.1312011110 24324166

상세보기
25 Yu R . Stress potentiates decision biases: A stress induced deliberation-to-intuition (SIDI) model . Neurobiol Stress . 2016 ; 3 : 83 – 95 . 10.1016/j.ynstr.2015.12.006 27981181

상세보기
26 Lee SW , Shimojo S , O’Doherty JP . Neural computations underlying arbitration between model-based and model-free learning . Neuron . 2014 2 ; 81 ( 3 ): 687 – 99 . 10.1016/j.neuron.2013.11.028 24507199

상세보기
27 Chen C , Takahashi T , Nakagawa S , Inoue T , Kusumi I . Reinforcement learning in depression: A review of computational research . Neurosci Biobehav Rev [Internet]. 2015 ; 55 : 247 – 67 . Available from: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.05.005 25979140

상세보기
28 Wagenmakers E-J . A practical solution to the pervasive problems of p values . Psychon Bull Rev [Internet]. 2007 ; 14 ( 5 ): 779 – 804 . Available from: 10.3758/BF03194105 18087943

상세보기
29 Wu CM , Schulz E , Speekenbrink M , Nelson JD , Meder B . Generalization guides human exploration in vast decision spaces . Nat Hum Behav [Internet]. 2018 ; Available from: 10.1038/s41562-018-0467-4 30988442

상세보기
30 Kim D , Park GY , O′Doherty JP , Lee SW . Task complexity interacts with state-space uncertainty in the arbitration between model-based and model-free learning . Nat Commun [Internet]. 2019 ; 10 ( 1 ): 5738 . Available from: 10.1038/s41467-019-13632-1 31844060

상세보기
31 Comstock GW , Helsing KJ . Symptoms of depression in two communities . Psychol Med . 1976 11 ; 6 ( 4 ): 551 – 63 . 10.1017/s0033291700018171 1005571

상세보기
32 Weissman MM , Sholomskas D , Pottenger M , Prusoff BA , Locke BZ . Assessing depressive symptoms in five psychiatric populations: a validation study . Am J Epidemiol . 1977 9 ; 106 ( 3 ): 203 – 14 . 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112455 900119

상세보기
33 Glascher J , Daw N , Dayan P , O’Doherty JP . States versus rewards: dissociable neural prediction error signals underlying model-based and model-free reinforcement learning . Neuron . 2010 5 ; 66 ( 4 ): 585 – 95 . 10.1016/j.neuron.2010.04.016 20510862

상세보기
34 O’Doherty JP , Cockburn J , Pauli WM . Learning, Reward, and Decision Making . Annu Rev Psychol [Internet]. 2017 1 3 ; 68 ( 1 ): 73 – 100 . Available from: 10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044216 27687119

상세보기
35 Bogdanov M , Timmermann JE , Gläscher J , Hummel FC , Schwabe L . Causal role of the inferolateral prefrontal cortex in balancing goal-directed and habitual control of behavior . Sci Rep [Internet]. 2018 ; 8 ( 1 ): 9382 . Available from: 10.1038/s41598-018-27678-6 29925889

상세보기
36 Shultz S , McCarthy G . Goal-Directed Actions Activate the Face-Sensitive Posterior Superior Temporal Sulcus and Fusiform Gyrus in the Absence of Human-Like Perceptual Cues . Vol. 22 , Cerebral cortex (New York, N.Y.: 1991) . 2011 . 1098–1106 p. 10.1093/cercor/bhr180 21768227

상세보기
37 Bezalel V , Paz R , Tal A . Inhibitory and excitatory mechanisms in the human cingulate-cortex support reinforcement learning: A functional Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy study . Neuroimage [Internet]. 2019 ; 184 (August 2018): 25 – 35 . Available from: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.09.016 30201464

상세보기
38 Boorman ED , Behrens TEJ , Woolrich MW , Rushworth MFS . How green is the grass on the other side? Frontopolar cortex and the evidence in favor of alternative courses of action . Neuron . 2009 6 ; 62 ( 5 ): 733 – 43 . 10.1016/j.neuron.2009.05.014 19524531

상세보기
39 Jocham G , Hunt LT , Near J , Behrens TEJ . A mechanism for value-guided choice based on the excitation-inhibition balance in prefrontal cortex . Nat Neurosci [Internet]. 2012 6 17 ; 15 : 960 . Available from: 10.1038/nn.3140 22706268

상세보기
40 Jocham G , Furlong PM , Kroger IL , Kahn MC , Hunt LT , Behrens TEJ . Dissociable contributions of ventromedial prefrontal and posterior parietal cortex to value-guided choice . Neuroimage . 2014 10 ; 100 : 498 – 506 . 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.06.005 24941453

상세보기
41 Luce RD . Individual choice behavior: a theoretical analysis. New York : Wiley . New York: Wiley; 1959 . 10.1037/h0043178
42 Daw ND , O’Doherty JP , Dayan P , Seymour B , Dolan RJ . Cortical substrates for exploratory decisions in humans . Nature . 2006 ; 441 ( 7095 ): 876 – 9 . 10.1038/nature04766 16778890

상세보기
43 Boorman ED , Behrens TE , Rushworth MF . Counterfactual choice and learning in a Neural Network centered on human lateral frontopolar cortex . PLoS Biol . 2011 ; 9 ( 6 ).

상세보기
44 Hare TA , Schultz W , Camerer CF , O’Doherty JP , Rangel A . Transformation of stimulus value signals into motor commands during simple choice . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 2011 11 ; 108 ( 44 ): 18120 – 5 . 10.1073/pnas.1109322108 22006321

상세보기
45 Rutledge RB , Moutoussis M , Smittenaar P , Zeidman P , Taylor T , Hrynkiewicz L , et al . Association of neural and emotional impacts of reward prediction errors with major depression . JAMA Psychiatry . 2017 ; 74 ( 8 ): 790 – 7 . 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.1713 28678984

상세보기
46 da Silva CF , Hare TA . Humans primarily use model-based inference in the two-stage task . Nat Hum Behav 4 , 1053 – 1066 ( 2020 ). 10.1038/s41562-020-0905-y 32632333

상세보기
47 Daw ND , Gershman SJ , Seymour B , Dayan P , Dolan RJ . Model-based influences on humans’ choices and striatal prediction errors . Neuron [Internet]. 2011 3 24 ; 69 ( 6 ): 1204 – 15 . Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3077926/ 10.1016/j.neuron.2011.02.027 21435563

상세보기
48 Schultz W , Dayan P , Montague PR . A neural substrate of prediction and reward . Science . 1997 3 ; 275 ( 5306 ): 1593 – 9 . 10.1126/science.275.5306.1593 9054347

상세보기
49 Hollerman JR , Schultz W . Dopamine neurons report an error in the temporal prediction of reward during learning . Nat Neurosci . 1998 8 ; 1 ( 4 ): 304 – 9 . 10.1038/1124 10195164

상세보기
50 Sharpe MJ , Chang CY , Liu MA , Batchelor HM , Mueller LE , Jones JL , et al . Dopamine transients are sufficient and necessary for acquisition of model-based associations . Nat Neurosci . 2017 5 ; 20 ( 5 ): 735 – 42 . 10.1038/nn.4538 28368385

상세보기
51 Dunlop BW , Nemeroff CB . The role of dopamine in the pathophysiology of depression . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 2007 3 ; 64 ( 3 ): 327 – 37 . 10.1001/archpsyc.64.3.327 17339521

상세보기
52 Malhi GS , Berk M . Does dopamine dysfunction drive depression? Acta Psychiatr Scand . 2007 ; 115 ( SUPPL. 433 ): 116 – 24 . 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2007.00969.x 17280577

상세보기
53 Bruder GE , Alvarenga J , Abraham K , Skipper J , Warner V , Voyer D , et al . Brain laterality, depression and anxiety disorders: New findings for emotional and verbal dichotic listening in individuals at risk for depression . Laterality [Internet]. 2015/11/19. 2016 ; 21 ( 4–6 ): 525 – 48 . Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26582420 10.1080/1357650X.2015.1105247 26582420

상세보기
54 Hecht D . Depression and the hyperactive right-hemisphere . Neurosci Res . 2010 10 1 ; 68 : 77 – 87 . 10.1016/j.neures.2010.06.013 20603163

상세보기
55 Heller W , Nitschke JB , Miller GA . Lateralization in Emotion and Emotional Disorders . Curr Dir Psychol Sci [Internet]. 1998 11 10 ; 7 ( 1 ): 26 – 32 . Available from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20182493
56 Jiang X , Shen Y , Yao J , Zhang L , Xu L , Feng R , et al . Connectome analysis of functional and structural hemispheric brain networks in major depressive disorder . Transl Psychiatry [Internet]. 2019 ; 9 ( 1 ): 136 . Available from: 10.1038/s41398-019-0467-9 30979866

상세보기
57 Li M , Xu H , Lu S . Neural Basis of Depression Related to a Dominant Right Hemisphere: A Resting-State fMRI Study . Piccardi L , editor. Behav Neurol [Internet]. 2018 ; 2018 : 5024520 . Available from: 10.1155/2018/5024520 29971137

상세보기
58 Perez H . Brain lateralization on the emotional processing of clinically diagnosed anxious and depressed male patients . 2014 .
59 Keramati M , Dezfouli A , Piray P . Speed/accuracy trade-off between the habitual and the goal-directed processes . PLoS Comput Biol . 2011 5 ; 7 ( 5 ): e1002055 . 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002055 21637741

상세보기
60 Keramati M , Smittenaar P , Dolan RJ , Dayan P . Adaptive integration of habits into depth-limited planning defines a habitual-goal–directed spectrum . Proc Natl Acad Sci [Internet]. 2016 11 8 ; 113 ( 45 ): 12868 LP – 12873 . Available from: http://www.pnas.org/content/113/45/12868.abstract 10.1073/pnas.1609094113 27791110

상세보기
61 Mattar MG , Daw ND . Prioritized memory access explains planning and hippocampal replay . Nat Neurosci 21 , 1609 – 1617 ( 2018 ). 10.1038/s41593-018-0232-z 30349103

상세보기
62 Lee WW , Tan YJ , Yao H , Li S , See HH , Hon M , et al . A neuro-inspired artificial peripheral nervous system for scalable electronic skins . Sci Robot [Internet]. 2019 7 17 ; 4 ( 32 ): eaax2198 . Available from: http://robotics.sciencemag.org/content/4/32/eaax2198.abstract 10.1126/scirobotics.aax2198 33137772

상세보기
63 Blanco NJ , Otto AR , Maddox WT , Beevers CG , Love BC . The influence of depression symptoms on exploratory decision-making . Cognition . 2013 12 ; 129 ( 3 ): 563 – 8 . 10.1016/j.cognition.2013.08.018 24055832

상세보기
64 Beevers CG , Worthy DA , Gorlick MA , Nix B , Chotibut T , Todd Maddox W . Influence of depression symptoms on history-independent reward and punishment processing . Psychiatry Res . 2013 5 ; 207 ( 1–2 ): 53 – 60 . 10.1016/j.psychres.2012.09.054 23122555

상세보기
65 Paulus MP , Feinstein JS , Leland D , Simmons AN . Superior temporal gyrus and insula provide response and outcome-dependent information during assessment and action selection in a decision-making situation . Neuroimage . 2005 4 ; 25 ( 2 ): 607 – 15 . 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.12.055 15784440

상세보기
66 Huys QJM , Pizzagalli DA , Bogdan R , Dayan P . Mapping anhedonia onto reinforcement learning: a behavioural meta-analysis . Biol Mood Anxiety Disord [Internet]. 2013 ; 3 ( 1 ): 12 . Available from: 10.1186/2045-5380-3-12 23782813

상세보기
67 Steele JD , Kumar P , Ebmeier KP . Blunted response to feedback information in depressive illness . Brain . 2007 9 ; 130 ( Pt 9 ): 2367 – 74 . 10.1093/brain/awm150 17586866

상세보기
68 Alloy LB , Olino T , Freed RD , Nusslock R . Role of Reward Sensitivity and Processing in Major Depressive and Bipolar Spectrum Disorders. Behav Ther [Internet]. 2016 ; 47 ( 5 ): 600 – 21 . Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005789416300041 10.1016/j.beth.2016.02.014 27816074

상세보기
69 Downar J , Daskalakis ZJ . New Targets for rTMS in Depression: A Review of Convergent Evidence . Brain Stimul Basic, Transl Clin Res Neuromodulation [Internet]. 2013 5 1 ; 6 ( 3 ): 231 – 40 . Available from: 10.1016/j.brs.2012.08.006 22975030

상세보기
70 Delaloye S , Holtzheimer PE . Deep brain stimulation in the treatment of depression . Dialogues Clin Neurosci . 2014 3 ; 16 ( 1 ): 83 – 91 . 10.31887/DCNS.2014.16.1/sdelaloye 24733973

상세보기
71 Kool W , Gershman SJ , Cushman FA . Cost-Benefit Arbitration Between Multiple Reinforcement-Learning Systems . Psychol Sci. 2017 9 ; 28 ( 9 ): 1321 – 33 . 10.1177/0956797617708288 28731839

상세보기
72 Kessler RC , Amminger GP , Aguilar-Gaxiola S , Alonso J , Lee S , Ustun TB . Age of onset of mental disorders: a review of recent literature . Curr Opin Psychiatry . 2007 7 ; 20 ( 4 ): 359 – 64 . 10.1097/YCO.0b013e32816ebc8c 17551351

상세보기
73 Radloff LS . The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population . Appl Psychol Meas [Internet]. 1977 6 1 ; 1 ( 3 ): 385 – 401 . Available from: 10.1177/014662167700100306

상세보기
74 Heo E-H , Choi K-S , Yu J-C , Nam J-A . Validation of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale among Korean Adolescents . Psychiatry Investig . 2018 2 ; 15 ( 2 ): 124 – 32 . 10.30773/pi.2017.07.19 29475228

상세보기
75 Zhang Y , Ting RZW , Lam MHB , Lam S-P , Yeung RO , Nan H , et al . Measuring depression with CES-D in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes: the validity and its comparison to PHQ-9 . BMC Psychiatry [Internet]. 2015 ; 15 ( 1 ): 198 . Available from: 10.1186/s12888-015-0580-0 26281832

상세보기
76 Kunisato Y , Okamoto Y , Ueda K , Onoda K , Okada G , Yoshimura S , et al . Effects of depression on reward-based decision making and variability of action in probabilistic learning . J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry [Internet]. 2012 ; 43 ( 4 ): 1088 – 94 . Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000579161200047X 10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.05.007 22721601

상세보기
77 Miller KJ , Botvinick MM , Brody CD . Dorsal hippocampus contributes to model-based planning . Nat Neurosci . 2017 9 ; 20 ( 9 ): 1269 – 76 . 10.1038/nn.4613 28758995

상세보기
78 De Martino B , Fleming SM , Garrett N , Dolan RJ . Confidence in value-based choice . Nat Neurosci [Internet]. 2012/12/09. 2013 1 ; 16 ( 1 ): 105 – 10 . Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23222911 10.1038/nn.3279 23222911

상세보기
79 Ma WJ , Beck JM , Latham PE , Pouget A . Bayesian inference with probabilistic population codes . Nat Neurosci . 2006 11 ; 9 ( 11 ): 1432 – 8 . 10.1038/nn1790 17057707

상세보기
80 Haith AM , Krakauer JW . Model-based and model-free mechanisms of human motor learning . Adv Exp Med Biol . 2013 ; 782 : 1 – 21 . 10.1007/978-1-4614-5465-6_1 23296478

상세보기
81 Lagaroas JC , Reeds JA , Wright MH , Wright PE . CONVERGENCE PROPERTIES OF THE NELDER–MEAD SIMPLEX METHOD IN LOW DIMENSIONS . SIAM J OPTIM . 1998 ; 9 ( 1 ): 112 – 47 .

상세보기
82 Schwarz G . Estimating the Dimension of a Model . Ann Stat [Internet]. 1978 ; 6 ( 2 ): 461 – 4 . Available from: http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.aos/1176344136

상세보기
83 Rushworth MFS , Noonan MP , Boorman ED , Walton ME , Behrens TE . Frontal cortex and reward-guided learning and decision-making . Neuron . 2011 6 ; 70 ( 6 ): 1054 – 69 . 10.1016/j.neuron.2011.05.014 21689594

상세보기
84 Brett M , Anton J-LL , Valabregue R , Poline J-B . Region of interest analysis using an SPM toolbox—Abstract Presented at the 8th International Conference on Functional Mapping of the Human Brain, June 2–6, 2002, Sendai, Japan . Neuroimage . 2002 ; 16 :Abstract 497.
85 Fujiwara J , Tobler PN , Taira M , Iijima T , Tsutsui K-I . A parametric relief signal in human ventrolateral prefrontal cortex . Neuroimage [Internet]. 2009 ; 44 ( 3 ): 1163 – 70 . Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811908010616 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.09.050 18992349

상세보기
86 Detre GJ , Polyn SM , Moore CD , Natu VS , Singer BD , Cohen JD , et al . The Multi-Voxel Pattern Analysis (MVPA) toolbox. Ohbm . 2006 .

LOADING...

활용도 분석정보

상세보기

다운로드

내보내기

활용도 Top5 논문

해당 논문의 주제분야에서 활용도가 높은 상위 5개 콘텐츠를 보여줍니다.
더보기 버튼을 클릭하시면 더 많은 관련자료를 살펴볼 수 있습니다.

표제어: PCR

동의어: Packet Collision Rate

용어 설명 출처 목록 (6)

용어 설명: PCR은 세균 특이성이 있는 primer를 이용하여 적은 수의 세균이 있을지라도 쉽게 검출할 수 있는 유용한 방법이며, 이를 이용하여 구강 내 치면세균막이나 타액에서 직접 세균을 검출할 수 있게 되었다[8].

내보내기 구분	파일저장 인쇄 메일전송
구성항목	기본정보 상세정보 관리번호, 논문명, 저널/프로시딩명, 저자 , 발행년, 권, 호, 시작페이지, 끝페이지, 발행기관 관리번호, 논문명, 대등논문명, 저자 , 저널/프로시딩명, 발행기관, 발행년, 발행언어, 권, 호, 시작페이지, 끝페이지, ISBN, ISSN, 주제분야, 키워드, 초록(한글), 초록(영문), 저자(소속기관)
저장형식	Text(ASCII format) Excel format RefWorks Direct Export RIS format (for Reference Manager, ProCite, EndNote), Scholar's Aids, Mendeley
메일정보	받는사람 (필수) @ 보내는사람 (선택) @ 제목 내용 KISTI 검색결과 이메일 서비스
안내	총 건의 자료가 검색되었습니다. 다운받으실 자료의 인덱스를 입력하세요. (1-10,000) 검색결과의 순서대로 최대 10,000건 까지 다운로드가 가능합니다. 데이타가 많을 경우 속도가 느려질 수 있습니다.(최대 2~3분 소요) 다운로드 파일은 UTF-8 형태로 저장됩니다. 파일의 내용이 제대로 보이지 않을실 때는 웹브라우저 상단의 보기 -> 인코딩 -> 자동선택 여부를 확인하십시오. ~ Text(ASCII format) Excel format

연합인증