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Described are preferred electrode structures which desirably include multiple thin conductive layers stably bonded to an electrode substrate through a bonding layer. Also described are preferred electrode structures which include reinforcing carbon layers, which include an embrittlement-sensitive ma

Described are preferred electrode structures which desirably include multiple thin conductive layers stably bonded to an electrode substrate through a bonding layer. Also described are preferred electrode structures which include reinforcing carbon layers, which include an embrittlement-sensitive material and a protective oxygen-free copper layer, and which include at least one thin metal layer including a bamboo grain pattern. Additional embodiments of the invention include electric cells incorporating such electrode structures, and methods for their operation.

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1. An electrode for an electrical cell, comprising:a) a non-conductive substrate; b) an adhesion coating bonded to the non-conductive substrate; c) a multilayer working electrode bonded to said adhesion coating, said multilayer working electrode including at least one layer of a first conductive met

1. An electrode for an electrical cell, comprising:a) a non-conductive substrate; b) an adhesion coating bonded to the non-conductive substrate; c) a multilayer working electrode bonded to said adhesion coating, said multilayer working electrode including at least one layer of a first conductive metal, and at least one layer of a second conductive metal; wherein said substrate has a concave surface; and wherein said adhesion coating and multilayer working electrode are bonded upon said concave surface. 2. The electrode of claim 1, wherein:said non-conductive substrate has a siliceous surface. 3. The electrode of claim 1, wherein:said adhesion coating has multiple layers. 4. The electrode of claim 3, wherein:said adhesion coating comprises a tantalum nitride layer bonded to said substrate. 5. The electrode of claim 4, wherein:said adhesion coating comprises an α-tantalum layer bonded to said tantalum nitride layer. 6. The electrode of claim 5, wherein said adhesion coating comprises a copper layer bonded to said α-tantalum layer.7. The electrode of claim 1, wherein said first and second conductive metals have a Fermi energy difference of at least about 0.5.8. The electrode of claim 1, wherein said at least one layer of a first conductive metal and at least one layer of a second conductive metal have a thickness of less than about 10,000 Angstroms.9. The electrode of claim 1, wherein said multilayer working electrode comprises at least four layers.10. The electrode of claim 1, also comprising a barrier layer atop said multilayer working electrode.11. The electrode of claim 10, wherein said barrier layer comprises amorphous carbon.12. An electrode, comprising:a) an electrode structure comprising a plurality of thin metal layers; and b) an amorphous carbon layer. 13. The electrode of claim 12, wherein said amorphous carbon layer is an amorphous diamond layer.14. The electrode of claim 12, also comprising a non-conductive substrate, said electrode structure adhered to sand nonconductive substrate.15. The electrode of claim 14, also including an adhesion coating intermediate said electrode structure and said non-conductive substrate.16. The electrode of claim 15, wherein said adhesion coating has multiple layers.17. The electrode of claim 16, wherein said adhesion coating includes a tantalum nitride layer adhered directly to said non-conductive substrate.18. The electrode of claim 17, wherein said adhesion coating further includes an α-tantalum layer adhered directly to said tantalum nitride layer.19. The electrode of claim 18, also including a copper layer bonded to said α-tantalum layer.20. An electrode for an electrochemical cell, comprising:a) an electrode structure comprising a plurality of thin metal layers; and b) wherein at least one of said thin metal layers exhibits a bamboo grain pattern. 21. The electrode of claim 20, also comprising a non-conductive substrate, said electrode structure adhered to said non-conductive substrate.22. The electrode of claim 21, also including an adhesion coating intermediate said electrode structure and said non-conductive substrate.23. The electrode of claim 22, wherein said adhesion coating has multiple layers.24. The electrode of claim 23, wherein said adhesion coating includes a tantalum nitride layer adhered directly to said non-conductive substrate.25. The electrode of claim 24, wherein said adhesion coating further includes an α-tantalum layer adhered directly to said tantalum nitride layer.26. The electrode of claim 25, also including a copper layer bonded to said α-tantalum layer.27. An electrode for an electrical cell, comprising:a) an electrode structure comprising a plurality of thin metal layers; and b) wherein said thin metal layers include a first metal layer and a second metal layer; and c) wherein said first metal layer has a lattice mismatch relative to said second metal layer of less than about 21%. 28. The electrode of claim 27, wherein said first metal layer comprises α-tantalum.29. The electrode of claim 28, wherein said second metal layer comprises a metal having a lattice constant mismatch of less than about 11% relative to said tantalum.30. The electrode of claim 29, wherein said second metal layer comprises niobium.31. The electrode of claim 29, wherein said second metal layer comprises beta-titanium.32. The electrode of claim 29, wherein said second metal layer comprises tungsten.33. The electrode of claim 29, wherein said second metal layer comprises molybdenum.34. The electrode of claim 29, wherein said second metal layer comprises vanadium.35. The electrode of claim 29, wherein said second metal layer comprises hafnium, erbium, dysprosium, samarium, gadolinium, or neodymium.36. The electrode of claim 29, wherein said second metal layer comprises zirconium.37. The electrode of claim 29, wherein said second metal layer comprises nickel.38. The electrode of claim 29, wherein said second metal layer comprises chromium.39. The electrode of claim 28, wherein said second metal layer comprises a metal having a lattice constant mismatch in the range of about 11% to about 21% relative to said tantalum.40. The electrode of claim 39, wherein said second metal layer comprises iron.41. The electrode of claim 39, wherein said second metal layer comprises cobalt.42. The electrode of claim 39, wherein said second metal layer comprises rhodium.43. The electrode of claim 39, wherein said second metal layer comprises iridium.44. The electrode of claim 39, wherein said second metal layer comprises rhenium.45. The electrode of claim 39, wherein said second metal layer comprises osmium.46. The electrode of claim 39, wherein said second metal layer comprises palladium.47. The electrode of claim 39, wherein said second metal layer comprises ruthenium.48. The electrode of claim 39, wherein said second metal layer comprises platinum.49. The electrode of claim 27, wherein at least one of said first and second metal layers comprises a metal alloy.50. The electrode of claim 27, wherein at least one of said first and second metal layers comprises a metal selected from copper, gold, nickel, palladium, rhodium, silver, cobalt and iron.51. The electrode of claim 27, wherein at least one of said first and second metal layers comprises a metal selected from silver, gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, rhenium, osmium and ruthenium.52. The electrode of claims 27, wherein at least one of said first and second metal layers has been annealed.53. An electrode for an electrical cell, comprising:a substrate; a tantalum nitride layer adhered to said substrate; a tantalum layer adhered to said tantalum nitride layer; a copper layer bonded to said tantalum layer; and a first metal layer bonded to said copper layer, said first metal layer comprising neodymium, nickel, samarium, uranium, thallium, rhodium, iridium, palladium, titanium, platinum, niobium, aluminum, magnesium, gold, molybdenum, silver, vanadium, iron, gadolinium, dysprosium, or hafnium. 54. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises neodymium.55. The electrode of claim 54, also comprising a second metal laer-bonded to said first metal layer.56. The electrode of claim 55, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of copper, iridium, niobium, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, tantalum, titanium, uranium, zirconium, silver, gold, molybdenum, vanadium and tungsten.57. The electrode of claim 56, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of copper, iridium, niobium, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, tantalum, titanium, uranium and zirconium.58. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises nickel.59. The electrode of claim 58, also comprising a second metal layer bonded to said first metal layer.60. The electrode of claim 57, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of copper, iridium, niobium, neodymium, palladium, rhodium, tantalum, titanium, uranium, zirconium, silver, gold, molybdenum, platinum, vanadiumnd tungsten.61. The electrode of claim 60, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of copper, iridium, niobium, neodymium, palladium, rhodium, tantalum, titanium, uranium, and zironsium.62. The electrode of claim 58, also comprising a second metal layer bonded to said first metal layer.63. The electrode of claim 62, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of copper, magnesium, neodymium, nickel, rhodium, titanium, thallium, aluminum, gold, palladium, platinum and vanadium.64. The electrode of claim 63, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of copper, magnesium, neodymium, nickel, rhodium, titanium, and thallium.65. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises samarium.66. The electrode of claim 65, also comprising a second metal lay grbonded to said first metal layer.67. The electrode of claim 66, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of copper, dysprosium, erbium, gadolinium, niobium, neodymium, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhenium, ruthenium, beta-titanium, vanadium, tungsten, zirconium, cobalt, chromium, iron, palladium, platinum, rhenium, and rhodium.68. The electrode of claim 67, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of copper, dysprosium, erbium, gadolinium, niobium, neodymium, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhenium, ruthenium, beta-titanium, vanadium, tungsten, and zirconium.69. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises uranium.70. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises thallium.71. The electrode of claim 70, also comprising a second metal laver bonded to said first metal layer.72. The electrode of claim 70, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of copper, magnesium, uranium and aluminum.73. The electrode of claim 72, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of copper, magnesium, and uranium.74. The electrode of claim 53, whein said first metal layer comprises rhodium.75. The electrode of claim 74, also comprising a second metal layer bonded to said first metal layer.76. The eletrode of claim 75, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of silver, aluminum, copper, iridium, neodymium, nickel, palladium, platinum, uranium, zirconium, molybdenum, niobium, tantalum, titanium, and tungsten.77. The electrode of claim 76, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of silver, aluminum, copper, iridium, neodymium, nickel, palladium, platinum, uranium, and zirconium.78. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises iridium.79. The electrode of claim 78, also comprising a second metal layerlbonded to said first metal layer.80. The electrode of claim 79, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of silver, gold, copper, neodymium, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, zirconium, molybdenum, niobium, tantalum, and titanium.81. The electrode of claim 79, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of silver, gold, copper, neodymium, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, and zirconium.82. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises palladium.83. The electrode of claim 82, also comprising a second metal layer bonded to said first metal layer.84. The electrode of claim 83, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of silver, gold, copper, iridium, neodymium, nickel, platinum, rhodium, molybdenum, niobium, tantalum, titanium, uranium, and zirconium.85. The electrode of claim 84, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of silver, gold, copper, iridium, neodymium, nickel, platinum, and rhodium.86. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises titanium.87. The electrode of claim 86, also comprising a second metal layer bonded to said first metal layer.88. The electrode of claim 87, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of copper, molybdenum, niobium, neodymium, nickel, tantalum, uranium, vanadium, tungsten, zirconium, cobalt, iron, iridium, palladium, platinum, rhenium, and rhodium.89. The electrode of claim 88, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of copper, molybdenum, niobium, neodymium, nickel, tantalum, uranium, vanadium, tungsten, and zirconium.90. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises platinum.91. The electrode of claim 90, also comprising a second metal layerbonded to said first metal layer.92. The electrode of claim 91, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of gold, copper, iridium, neodymium, palladium, rhodium, molybdenum, niobium, nickel, tantalum, titantium, uranium, and zirconium.93. The electrode of claim 92, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of gold, copper, iridium, neodymium, palladium, and rhodium.94. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises niobium.95. The electrode of claim 94, also comprising a second metal layer bonded to said first metal layer.96. The electrode of claim 95, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of copper, molybdenum, neodymium, nickel, tantalum, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, zirconium, cobalt, iron, iridium, osmium, palladium, platinum, rhum,rhdium, and ruthenium.97. The electrode of claim 96, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of copper, molybdenum, neodymium, nickel, tantalum, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, and zirconium.98. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises aluminum.99. The electrode of claim 98, also comprising a second metal layer bonded to said first metal layer.100. The electrode of claim 99, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of gold, copper, thallium, uranium, and zirconium.101. The electrode of claim 100, wherein said member is gold.102. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises magnesium.103. The electrode of claim 102, also comprising a second metal layer bonded to said first metal layer.104. The electrode of claim 103, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of thallium, uranium and copper.105. The electrode of claim 104, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of thallium and uranium.106. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises gold.107. The electrode of claim 106, also comprising a second metal layer bonded to said first metal layer.108. The electrode of claim 107, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of silver, aluminum, iridium, palladium, platinum, rhodium, copper, neodymium, nickel, thorium, uranium, and zirconium.109. The electrode of claim 108, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of silver, aluminum, iridium, palladium, platinum, and rhodium.110. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises molybdenum.111. The electrode of claim 110, also comprising a second metal layer bonded to said first metal layer.112. The electrode of claim 111, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of iron, niobium, tantalum, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, zirconium, cobalt, iridium, neodymium, nickel, osmium, palladium, platinum, rhenium, rhodium, and ruthenium.113. The electrode of claim 112, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of iron, niobium, tantalum, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, and zirconium.114. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises silver.115. The electrode of claim 114, also comprising a second metal layerbonded to said first metal layer.116. The electrode of claim 115, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of aluminum, gold, iridium, palladium, rhodium, copper, neodymium, nickel, thallium, uranium, and zirconium.117. The electrode of claim 116, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of aluminum, gold, iridium, palladium, and rhodium.118. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises vanadium.119. The electrode of claim 118, also comprising a second metal layer bonded to said first metal layer.120. The electrode of claim 119, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of cobalt, iron, molybdenum, niobium, osmium, rhenium, tantalum, titanium, tungsten, copper, neodymium, nickel, ruthenium, uranium, and zirconium.121. The electrode of claim 120, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of cobalt, iron, molybdenum, niobium, osmium, rhenium, tantalum, titanium, and tungsten.122. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises iron.123. The electrode of claim 122, also comprising a second metal layer bonded to said first metal layer.124. The electrode of claim 123, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of cobalt, molybdenum, osmium, rhenium, ruthenium, vanadium, tungsten, niobium, tantalum, and titanium.125. The electrode of claim 124, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of cobalt, molybdenum, osmium, rhenium, ruthenium, vanadium, and tungsten.126. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises gadolinium.127. The electrode of claim 126, also comprising a second metal layer bonded to said first metal layer.128. The electrode of claim 127, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of copper, dysprosium, erbium, iridium, niobium, neodymium, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, samarium, α-tantalum, β-titanium, γ-uranium, zirconium, silver, gold, hafnium, molybdenum, vanadium, and tungsten.129. The electrode of claim 128, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of copper, dysprosium, erbium, iridium, niobium, neodymium, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, samarium, α-tantalum, β-titanium, γ-uranium, and zirconium.130. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises dysprosium.131. The electrode of claim 130, also comprising a second metal layer bonded to said first metal layer.132. The electrode of claim 131, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of copper, erbium, gadolinium, iridium, niobium, neodymium, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, samarium, α-tantalum, β-titanium, γ-uranium, zirconium, silver, gold, hafnium, molybdenum, vanadium, and tungsten.133. The electrode of claim 132, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of copper, erbium, gadolinium, iridium, niobium, neodymium, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, samarium, α-tantalum, β-titanium, turanium, and zirconium.134. The electrode of claim 53, wherein said first metal layer comprises hafnium.135. The electrode of claim 134, also comprising a second metal layer bonded to said first metal layer.136. The electrode of claim 135, wherein said second metal layer comprises a member selected from the group consisting of chromium, molybdenum, niobium, nickel, α-tantalum, β-titanium, vanadium, tungsten, zirconium, cobalt, dysprosium, erbium, iron, iridium, gadolinium, neodymium, osmium, rhenium, rhodium, ruthenium, and samarium.137. The electrode of claim 136, wherein said member is selected from the group consisting of chromium, molybdenum, niobium,. nickel, α-tantalum, β-titanium, vanadium, tungsten, zirconium.138. An electrode for an electrical cell, comprising:a) a substrate; b) a muflilayer working electrode on said substrate, said multilayer working electrode including at least one layer of a first conductive metal, and at least one layer of a second conductive metal; and wherein said first and second conductive metals have a lattice constant mismatch of less than about 21% when saturated with hydrogen or its isotopes.139. The electrode of claim 138, wherein said first conductive metal and said second conductive metal exhibit substantially equivalent swelling upon saturation with hydrogen or its isotopes.140. The electrode of claim 138, wherein said first conductive metal and second conductive metal exhibit a decreasing lattice constant mismnatch upon saturation with hydrogen or its isotopes.141. An electrode for an electrical cell exhibiting resistance to damage from electromigration in use, comprising:a) a substrate; b) a multilayer working electrode on said substrate, said multilayer working electrode including at least one layer of a first conductive metal, and at least one layer of a second conductive metal; and wherein at least one of said first and second conductive metals has a mean grain size having a diameter at least about equal to a thickness of the layer in which it is contained. 142. An electrical cell apparatus, comprising an electrode of any of claims 1, 20, 22, 53, 138 and 141.143. A method for localizing a concentration of ions of hydrogen or its isotopes, comprising: providing an electrical cell apparatus of claim 142; and causing said ions to form a localized concentration of ions within said electrode by electromigration.144. An electrode for an electrical cell, comprising:a) a non-conductive substrate; b) an adhesion coating bonded to the non-conductive substrate; c) a multilayer working electrode bonded to said adhesion coating, said multilayer working electrode including at least one layer of a first conductive metal, and at least one layer of a second conductive metal; wherein said substrate has a convex surface; and wherein said adhesion coating and multilayer working electrode are bonded upon said convex surface. 145. The electrode of claim 144, whereinsaid adhesion coating comprises a tantalum nitride layer bonded to said substrate. 146. The electrodeof claim 145, wherein:said adhesion coating comprises an α-tantalum layer bonded to said tantalum nitride layer. 147. The electrode of claim 146, wherein said adhesion coating comprises a copper layer bonded to said α-tantalum layer.148. An electrode for an electrical cell, comprising:a) a non-conductive substrate; b) an adhesion coating bonded to the non-conductive substrate; c) a multilayer working electrode bonded to said adhesion coating, said multilayer working electrode including at least one layer of a first conductive metal, and at least one layer of a second conductive metal; and wherein said first and second conductive metals have a Fermi energy difference of at least about 0.5. 149. The electrode of claim 148, wherein:said adhesion coating comprises a tantalum nitride layer bonded to said substrate. 150. The electrode of claim 149, wherein:said adhesion coating comprises an α-tantalum layer bonded to said tantalum nitride layer. 151. The electrode of claim 150, wherein said adhesion coating comprises a copper layer bonded to said α-tantalum layer.152. An electrode for an electrical cell, comprising:a) a non-conductive substrate; b) an adhesion coating bonded to the non-conductive substrate; c) a multilayer working electrode bonded to said adhesion coating, said multilayer working electrode including at least one layer of a first conductive metal, and at least one layer of a second conductive metal; and wherein said multilayer workin electrode comprises at least four layers. 153. The electrode of claim 152, wherein:said adhesion coating comprises a tantalum nitride layer bonded to said substrate. 154. The electrode of claim 153, wherein:said adhesion coating comprises an α-tantalum layer bonded to said tantalum nitride layer. 155. The electrode of claim 154, wherein said adhesion coating comprises a copper layer bonded to said α-tantalum layer.156. An electrode for an electrical cell, comprising:a) a non-conductive substrate; b) an adhesion coating bonded to the non-conductive substrate; c) a multilayer working electrode bonded to said adhesion coating, said multilayer working electrode including at least one layer of a first conductive metal, and at least one layer of a second conductive metal; and d) a barrier layer atop said multilayer working electrode. 157. The electrode of claim 156, wherein:said adhesion coating comprises a tantalum nitride layer bonded to said substrate. 158. The electrode of claim 157, wherein:said adhesion coating comprises an α-tantalum layer bonded to said tantalum nitride layer. 159. The electrode of claim 158, wherein said adhesion coating comprises a copper layer bonded to said α-tantalum layer.160. An, electrical cell apparatus, comprising an electrode of any of claims 144, 148, 151, and 156.161. An electrical cell apparatus comprising an electrode, said electrode including:a) a non-conductive substrate; b) an adhesion coating bonded to the non-conductive substrate; c) a multilayer working electrode bonded to said adhesion coating, said multilayer working electrode including at least one layer of a first conductive metal, and at least one layer of a second conductive metal. 162. An electrical cell apparatus comprising an electrode, said electrode including:a) a substrate; b) an embrittlement-sensitive material on said substrate; and c) a protective layer comprising oxygen-free copper protecting said embrittlement-sensitive material. 163. An electrical cell apparatus comprising and electrode, the electrode including:a substrate; a tantalum nitride layer adhered to said substrate; a tantalum layer adhered to said tantalum nitride layer; a copper layer bonded to said tantalum layer; and a first metal layer bonded to said copper layer.