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Tunneling-effect converters of thermal energy to electricity with an emitter and a collector separated from each other by a distance that is comparable to atomic dimensions and where tunneling effect plays an important role in the charge movement from the emitter to the collector across the gap sepa

Tunneling-effect converters of thermal energy to electricity with an emitter and a collector separated from each other by a distance that is comparable to atomic dimensions and where tunneling effect plays an important role in the charge movement from the emitter to the collector across the gap separating such emitter and collector. At least one of the emitter and collector structures includes a flexible structure. Tunneling-effect converters include devices that convert thermal energy to electrical energy and devices that provide refrigeration when electric power is supplied to such devices.

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1. A tunneling-effect converter, comprising:an electric charge collector having a collector surface, wherein said collector surface is atomically smooth; an electric charge emitter having an emitter surface, wherein said emitter surface is atomically smooth and wherein said emitter surface is separa

1. A tunneling-effect converter, comprising:an electric charge collector having a collector surface, wherein said collector surface is atomically smooth; an electric charge emitter having an emitter surface, wherein said emitter surface is atomically smooth and wherein said emitter surface is separated from said collector surface by a gap such that said emitter surface is separated from said collector surface by a distance that is less than or equal to about 5 nm; and a spacer between said collector and said emitter, wherein said spacer comprises a dielectric material in contact with said collector surface and with said emitter surface; wherein at least one of said collector and said emitter is a flexible electrode, the flexible electrode comprising a thin flexible layer, and said flexible layer comprises at least one of a a semiconductor material and the combination of a semiconductor material and a dielectric material, with an electrically conducting coating. 2. A tunneling effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said emitter surface is separated from said collector surface by a distance that is less than or equal to about 3 nm.3. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said gap comprises an inert gas.4. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said gap comprises a rarefied medium.5. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said flexible layer thickness is less than or equal to about 20 micrometers.6. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said electrically conducting coating is at least 20 nm thick.7. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said electrically conducting coating comprises a metal.8. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said flexible layer comprises silicon coated with nickel.9. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said flexible electrode comprises a mesh.10. A tunneling effect converter as recited in claim 9, wherein said mesh comprises a nanowire mesh.11. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 10, wherein the wire diameter in said nanowire mesh is in the range from about 1 nm to about 50 nm.12. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 10, wherein said nanowire mesh comprises mesh material that is at least one of carbon, metal, metal-coated dielectric, semiconductor, and combinations thereof.13. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said emitter comprises silicon coated with an electric conductor.14. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 13, wherein said electric conductor comprises Mo.15. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 14, wherein said silicon is present in the form of a silicon layer that is less than or equal to about 10 micrometers and wherein said Mo is present as a coating whose thickness is less than or equal to about 1000 Å.16. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said emitter surface is coated with a low electron work function material.17. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 16, wherein said low electron work function material is at least one of an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, and combinations thereof.18. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said emitter surface comprises at least two coatings, a first coating comprising a material with an electron work function of at least about 3.5 eV, and wherein said first coating is coated with a second coating comprising a material with an electron work function that does not exceed about 3.5 eV.19. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 18, wherein said first coating comprises at least one of platinum oxide, silver oxide, tantalum oxide, vanadium oxide, Os, Ir, Pt, Re, Ni, W, and combinations thereof, and wherein said second coating comprises at least one of an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, and combinations thereof.20. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said collector comprises Al.21. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said collector comprises a metallized semiconductor.22. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said collector surface and said emitter surface are finished to a surface roughness that does not exceed about 20 Å RMS.23. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said collector surface and said emitter surface are finished to a surface roughness that does not exceed about 10 Å RMS.24. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said collector surface comprises the surface of a high IR reflectivity material.25. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 24, wherein said high reflectivity material comprises at least one of Al, Cu, Ag, Au, and combinations thereof.26. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 1, wherein said emitter surface comprises the surface of a high IR emissivity material.27. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 26, wherein said high IR emissivity material comprises at least one of metal carbide, Fe, Ni, Co, and combinations thereof.28. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 9, wherein the wire diameter in said mesh is less than or equal to about 0.5 mm.29. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 16, wherein said low electron work function material is at least one of Cs, Ba, Sr, Rb, Na, Ca, Li, and combinations thereof.30. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 19, wherein said first coating comprises at least one of platinum oxide, silver oxide, tantalum oxide, vanadium oxide, Os, Ir, Pt, Re, Ni, W, and combinations thereof, and wherein said second coating comprises at least one of Cs, Ba, Sr, Rb, Na, Ca, Li, and combinations thereof.31. A tunneling-effect converter, comprising:an electric charge collector having a collector surface; an electric charge emitter having an emitter surface, wherein said collector surface is separated from said emitter surface by a distance such that the probability for electron tunneling between said emitter surface and said collector surface is at least 0.1%; and a spacer between said collector and said emitter, wherein said spacer comprises a dielectric material in contact with said collector surface and with said emitter surface; wherein said collector surface and said emitter surface are finished to a surface roughness that does not exceed about 20 Å RMS.32. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 31, wherein said emitter surface is separated form said collector surface by a distance that is less than or equal to about 5 nm.33. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 31, wherein at least one of said emitter and said collector is a flexible electrode.34. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 31, wherein said collector surface comprises the surface of a high IR reflectivity material.35. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 31, wherein said emitter surface comprises the surface of a high IR emissivity material.36. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 33, wherein said flexible electrode comprises a mesh.37. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 31, wherein said emitter surface is coated with a low electron work function material.38. A tunneling-effect converter, comprising:an electric charge collector having a collector surface; an electric charge emitter having an emitter surface, wherein at least one of said collector and said emitter comprises an electrically conductive flexible layer, wherein said flexible layer is in electrical communication with an electrically conductive mesh; and a spacer between said collector and said emitter, wherein said spacer comprises a dielectric material in contact with said collector surface and said emitter surface, and wherein said emitter surface is separated from said collector surface by a distance that is less than or equal to about 5 nm.39. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 38, wherein said collector surface and said emitter surface are atomically smooth.40. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 39, wherein said collector surface and said emitter surface are finished to a surface roughness that does not exceed about 20 Å RMS, and wherein said flexible layer has a thickness that does not exceed about 20 micrometers.41. A tunneling-effect converter, comprising:an electric charge collector having a collector surface that is atomically smooth; an electric charge emitter having an emitter surface that is atomically smooth, wherein at least one of said collector and said emitter is a flexible electrode;a spacer between said collector and said emitter, wherein said spacer comprises dielectric material in contact with said collector surface and said emitter surface; and means for load distribution applied to said flexible electrode; wherein at least one of said collector and said emitter is a flexible electrode, the flexible electrode comprising a thin flexible layer, and said flexible layer comprises at least one of a a semiconductor material and the combination of a semiconductor material and a dielectric material, with an electrically conducting coating.42. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 41, wherein said emitter surface is separated from said collector surface by a distance that is less than or equal to about 5 nm.43. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 41, wherein said means for load distribution comprises an external applicator of a compressive force.44. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 41, wherein said means for load distribution comprises a holder.45. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 41, wherein said means for load distribution comprises an adhesive material.46. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 41, wherein said means for load distribution comprises at least one clamp.47. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 41, wherein said means for load distribution comprises an interlocking device.48. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 41, wherein said means for load distribution comprises a sealant.49. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 41, wherein said means for load distribution comprises an encapsulant.50. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 41, wherein said means for load distribution comprises a mesh.51. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 41, wherein said means for load distribution comprises a flexible mesh.52. A tunneling-effect converter, comprising:an electric charge collector having a collector surface that is atomically smooth; an electric charge emitter having an emitter surface that is atomically smooth, wherein said emitter surface is separated from said collector surface by a gap; and a spacer between said collector and said emitter, wherein said spacer comprises a dielectric material in contact with said collector surface and with said emitter surface; wherein at least one of said emitter and said collector is a flexible electrode that comprises a mesh.53. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 52, wherein a wire diameter in said mesh is less than or equal to about 0.5 mm.54. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 52, wherein said mesh comprises a nanowire mesh.55. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 54, wherein a wire diameter in said nanowire mesh is in the range from about 1 nm to about 50 nm.56. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 54, wherein said nanowire mesh comprises mesh material that is at least one of carbon, metal, metal-coated dielectric, semiconductor, and combinations thereof.57. A tunneling-effect converter, comprising:an electric charge collector having a collector surface that is atomically smooth; an electric charge emitter having an emitter surface that is atomically smooth and separated from said collector surface by a gap, wherein said emitter surface comprises at least two coatings including a first coating comprising a material with an electron work function of at least about 3.5 eV, and a second coating comprising a material with an electron work function that does not exceed about 3.5 eV; and a spacer between said collector and said emitter, wherein said spacer comprises a dielectric material in contact with said collector surface and with said emitter surface. 58. A tunneling-effect converter as recited in claim 57, wherein said first coating comprises at least one of platinum oxide, silver oxide, tantalum oxide, vanadium oxide, Os, Ir, Pt, Re, Ni, W, and combinations thereof, and wherein said second coating comprises at least one of an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, and combinations thereof.59. A tunneling-effect converter, comprising:an electric charge collector having a collector surface; an electric charge emitter having an emitter surface, wherein said emitter surface is separated from said collector surface by a gap; and a spacer between said collector and said emitter, wherein said spacer comprises a dielectric material in contact with said collector surface and with said emitter surface; wherein said collector surface and said emitter surface are finished to a surface roughness that does not exceed about 20 Å RMS.