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Disclosed embodiments provide a solution-based process for producing useful materials, such as semiconductor materials. One disclosed embodiment comprises providing at least a first reactant and a second reactant in solution and applying the solution to a substrate. The as-deposited material is ther

Disclosed embodiments provide a solution-based process for producing useful materials, such as semiconductor materials. One disclosed embodiment comprises providing at least a first reactant and a second reactant in solution and applying the solution to a substrate. The as-deposited material is thermally annealed to form desired compounds. Thermal annealing may be conducted under vacuum; under an inert atmosphere; or under a reducing environment. The method may involve using metal and chalcogen precursor compounds. One example of a metal precursor compound is a metal halide. Examples of suitable chalcogen precursor compounds include a chalcogen powder, a chalcogen halide, a chalcogen oxide, a chalcogen urea, a chalcogen or dichalcogen comprising organic ligands, or combinations thereof. Certain disclosed embodiments concern a method for making a solar cell from I-III-VI semiconductors.

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1. A method, comprising: providing at least a first reactant and a chalcogen precursor compound in solution, wherein the first reactant is a metal precursor compound, and the chalcogen precursor compound is selected from a chalcogen powder, a chalcogen halide, a chalcogen oxide, a chalcogen urea, a

1. A method, comprising: providing at least a first reactant and a chalcogen precursor compound in solution, wherein the first reactant is a metal precursor compound, and the chalcogen precursor compound is selected from a chalcogen powder, a chalcogen halide, a chalcogen oxide, a chalcogen urea, a chalcogen or dichalcogen comprising organic ligands, or combinations thereof;depositing the first reactant and the chalcogen precursor compound on a substrate;evaporating solvent to form a deposited material on the substrate; andthermally annealing the deposited material to form a semiconductor. 2. The method according to claim 1 where the semiconductor is a I-III-VI semiconductor. 3. The method according to claim 1 where the first reactant and the chalcogen precursor compound are provided in the same solution. 4. The method according to claim 1 where the first reactant and the chalcogen precursor compound are provided in different solutions. 5. The method according to claim 1, further comprising: flowing the metal precursor compound and the chalcogen precursor compound to a micromixer to form the solution; andapplying the solution to the substrate using a microchannel applicator. 6. The method according to claim 1 where the metal precursor compound is a metal halide. 7. The method according to claim 1 where the chalcogen precursor compound has a formula where A is a chalcogen, and R—R3 are independently aliphatic, substituted aliphatic, arylalkyl, cyclic, substituted cyclic, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl or hydrogen. 8. The method according to claim 7 where R—R3 are independently hydrogen or lower alkyl. 9. The method according to claim 7 where the chalcogen precursor compound is 10. The method according to claim 1 where the chalcogen precursor compound has a formula R-Chalcogen1-Chalcogen2-R1 where Chalcogen1 and Chalcogen2 are the same or different, and are selected from sulfur, selenium and tellurium, and where R and R1 are the same or different and are selected from aliphatic, substituted aliphatic, arylalkyl, cyclic, substituted cyclic, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl or hydrogen. 11. The method according to claim 10 where R and R1 are the same or different and are selected from hydrogen and lower alkyl. 12. The method according to claim 1 where chalcogen precursor compound has a formula R—(O, S, Se and/or Te)—R1 where R and R1 are the same or different and are selected from aliphatic, substituted aliphatic, arylalkyl, cyclic, substituted cyclic, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl or hydrogen. 13. The method according to claim 12 where R and R1 are the same or different and are selected from hydrogen and lower alkyl. 14. The method according to claim 1 where the chalcogen precursor compound has a formula R—S—S—R1,R—Se—Se—R1, or R—Te—Te—R1 where R and R1 are the same or different and are selected from hydrogen, ethyl, methyl and phenyl. 15. The method according to claim 1 where the chalcogen precursor compound has a formula R-Chalcogen-R1 where R and R1 are the same or different and are independently selected from aliphatic, substituted aliphatic, arylalkyl, cyclic, substituted cyclic, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl or hydrogen. 16. The method according to claim 15 where R and R1 are the same or different and are selected from hydrogen and lower alkyl. 17. The method according to claim 16 where R and R1 are the same or different and are independently selected from hydrogen, ethyl, methyl and phenyl. 18. The method according to claim 1 where the chalcogen precursor compound is dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide, diethyl sulfide, diethyl disulfide, diphenyl sulfide, diphenyl disulfide, dimethyl selenide, dimethyl diselenide, diethyl selenide, diethyl diselenide, diphenyl selenide, diphenyl diselenide, diphenylselenium dichloride, dimethyl telluride, dimethyl ditelluride, diethyl telluride, diethyl ditelluride, diphenyl telluride, diphenyl ditelluride, diphenyltellurium dichloride, phenol, thiophenol, phenylseleno and the tellurium analog, or combinations thereof. 19. The method according to claim 1 where thermally annealing is performed in a vacuum or under an inert atmosphere. 20. The method according to claim 1 further comprising exposing the deposited material or the semiconductor to an annealing gas. 21. The method according to claim 20, further comprising: flowing the metal precursor compound and the chalcogen precursor compound to a micromixer to mix the first and second reactant to form the solution; andapplying the solution to the substrate using a microchannel applicator. 22. A method for making a photovoltaic, comprising: depositing a metal precursor solution onto a substrate;forming a first metal contact layer;depositing a semiconductor absorber precursor solution on the metal layer, the semiconductor absorber precursor solution comprising a first precursor reactant and at least a second precursor reactant in appropriate stoichiometric ratios for forming a semiconductor absorber layer;forming the semiconductor absorber layer;forming a buffer layer on the semiconductor layer;depositing a transparent conductive metal oxide precursor solution on the buffer layer;forming the transparent conductive metal oxide layer; andforming a second metal contact layer on the metal oxide layer. 23. The method according to claim 22 further comprising forming an antireflective coating on the second metal contact layer. 24. The method according to claim 22 further comprising encapsulating at least a portion of the photovoltaic in an encapsulant. 25. The method according to claim 22 where the substrate comprises glass, a metal, a metal alloy, a polymer, or combinations thereof. 26. The method according to claim 22 where the first metal contact is a molybdenum contact. 27. The method according to claim 22 where the metal precursor solution comprises molybdenum hexacarbonyl. 28. The method according to claim 22 where depositing comprises inkjet printing, spin coating, gravure, micro-pen, nano-fountain pen, dip-pen, screen printing, spray coating, slide coating, slot coating, curtain coating, dip coating or combinations thereof. 29. The method according to claim 22 where the semiconductor is a I-III-VI (Au, Ag, Cu)(In, Ga, A1)(0, S, Se, Te, Po) semiconductor. 30. The method according to claim 22 where the semiconductor layer is a CIS, CIGS, CIGSS or CGS semiconductor. 31. The method according to claim 22 where the semiconductor absorber layer is formed using solutions of copper halide, indium halide, gallium halides, and selenohalides or selenourea. 32. The method according to claim 22 where the solution comprises an acetonitrile solvent. 33. The method according to claim 22 where forming the semiconductor layer comprises thermally annealing the deposited material layer under vacuum or an inert atmosphere at a temperature of from about 400° C. to about 600° C. 34. The method according to claim 33 further comprising exposing the deposited material or the semiconductor material to an annealing gas. 35. The method according to claim 22, further comprising: flowing a metal precursor compound and a chalcogen precursor compound to a micromixer to form the semiconductor absorber precursor solution; andapplying the semiconductor absorber precursor solution to the substrate using a microchannel applicator. 36. The method according to claim 22 where the first precursor reactant is a metal halide. 37. The method according to claim 22 where the second precursor reactant is a chalcogen precursor compound comprising a chalcogen powder, a chalcogen halide, a chalcogen oxide, a chalcogen urea, a chalcogen or dichalcogen comprising organic ligands, or combinations thereof. 38. The method according to claim 37 where the chalcogen urea has a formula where A is a chalcogen, and R—R3 are independently aliphatic, substituted aliphatic, arylalkyl, cyclic, substituted cyclic, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl or hydrogen. 39. The method according to claim 38 where R and R1 are independently selected from hydrogen, ethyl, methyl and phenyl. 40. The method according to claim 38 where the chalcogen urea is 41. The method according to claim 37 where the chalcogen precursor compound has a formula R-Chalcogen1-Chalcogen2-R1 where Chalcogen1 and Chalcogen2 are the same or different, and are selected from sulfur, selenium and tellurium, and where R and R1 are the same or different and are selected from aliphatic, substituted aliphatic, arylalkyl, cyclic, substituted cyclic, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl or hydrogen. 42. The method according to claim 37 where the chalcogen precursor compound has a formula R-Chalcogen-R1 where R and R1 are the same or different and are independently selected from aliphatic, substituted aliphatic, arylalkyl, cyclic, substituted cyclic, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl or hydrogen. 43. The method according to claim 37 where the chalcogen precursor compound is dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide, diethyl sulfide, diethyl disulfide, diphenyl sulfide, diphenyl disulfide, dimethyl selenide, dimethyl diselenide, diethyl selenide, diethyl diselenide, diphenyl selenide, diphenyl diselenide, diphenylselenium dichloride, dimethyl telluride, dimethyl ditelluride, diethyl telluride, diethyl ditelluride, diphenyl telluride, diphenyl ditelluride, diphenyltellurium dichloride, phenol, thiophenol, phenylseleno and the tellurium analog, or combinations thereof. 44. A method for making a solar cell, comprising: depositing a molybdenum precursor solution onto a glass substrate and forming a molybdenum metal contact layer;depositing a CIS, CIGS, CIGSS or CGS semiconductor absorber precursor solution on the molybdenum metal layer, the semiconductor absorber precursor solution comprising at least a first metal precursor reactant and at least a second chalcogen precursor compound comprising a chalcogen powder, a chalcogen halide, a chalcogen oxide, a chalcogen urea, a chalcogen or dichalcogen comprising organic ligands, or combinations thereof, in appropriate stoichiometric ratios for forming a semiconductor absorber layer for the solar cell;thermally annealing CIS, CIGS, CIGSS or CGS semiconductor absorber precursor material under vacuum or an inert atmosphere to form the semiconductor absorber layer;forming a buffer layer on the semiconductor layer;depositing a transparent conductive metal oxide precursor solution on the buffer layer;forming the metal oxide layer;depositing a solution comprising an antireflective coating precursor material on the metal oxide layer; andforming the antireflective coating. 45. A method, comprising: providing a solution comprising at least a first reactant and a chalcogen precursor compound, wherein the chalcogen precursor compound is selected from a chalcogen powder, a chalcogen halide, a chalcogen oxide, a chalcogen urea, a chalcogen or dichalcogen comprising organic ligands, or combinations thereof;depositing the solution comprising the first reactant and the precursor compound on a substrate;evaporating solvent to form a deposited material on the substrate; andthermally annealing the deposited material to form a semiconductor. 46. A method, comprising: providing at least a first reactant and a chalcogen precursor compound in solution, wherein the first reactant is a metal precursor compound, and the chalcogen precursor compound is selected from a chalcogen powder, a chalcogen halide, a chalcogen oxide, a chalcogen urea, a chalcogen or dichalcogen comprising organic ligands, or combinations thereof;flowing the metal precursor compound and the chalcogen precursor compound to a micromixer to form a solution comprising the metal precursor compound and the chalcogen precursor compound;applying the solution to a substrate using a microchannel applicator;evaporating solvent to form a deposited material on the substrate; andthermally annealing the deposited material to form a semiconductor. 47. A method, comprising: providing at least a first reactant and a chalcogen precursor compound in solution, wherein the first reactant is a metal halide, and the chalcogen precursor compound is selected from a chalcogen powder, a chalcogen halide, a chalcogen oxide, a chalcogen urea, a chalcogen or dichalcogen comprising organic ligands, or combinations thereof;depositing the first reactant and the chalcogen precursor compound on a substrate;evaporating solvent to form a deposited material on the substrate; andthermally annealing the deposited material to form a semiconductor. 48. A method, comprising: providing at least a metal precursor compound and a chalcogen precursor compound in solution, wherein the metal precursor compound is a halide, an acetate, a nitrate, a sulfate, a carbonate, a carbonyl, a phosphate, a urea, or a mixture thereof, and the chalcogen precursor compound is selected from a chalcogen powder, a chalcogen halide, a chalcogen oxide, a chalcogen urea, a chalcogen or dichalcogen comprising organic ligands, or combinations thereof;depositing the metal precursor compound and the chalcogen precursor compound on a substrate;evaporating solvent to form a deposited material on the substrate; andthermally annealing the deposited material to form a semiconductor.