[보고서]원자력시설 고도제염기술 개발

최왕규

원자력시설 고도제염기술 개발
Development of advanced decontamination technologies for nuclear facilities 원문보기

보고서 정보
주관연구기관	한국원자력연구원 Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute
연구책임자	최왕규
참여연구자	원휘준 , 정종헌 , 박상윤 , 김선병 , 윤인호 , 문제권 , 최종원 , 안병길 , 양한범 , 최만수 , 김승은 , 정준영 , 박정순
보고서유형	최종보고서
발행국가	대한민국
언어	한국어
발행년월	2017-04
과제시작연도	2016
주관부처	미래창조과학부 Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning
등록번호	TRKO201800005937
과제고유번호	1711035778
사업명	원자력기술개발사업
DB 구축일자	2018-05-12
키워드	화학제염.일차계통제염.제염폐액 처리.나노복합유체.거품 제염.거품 안정성.실리카 나노입자.chemical decontamination.primary system decontamination.decomposition.foam decontamination.foam stability.silica nanoparticle.
DOI	https://doi.org/10.23000/TRKO201800005937

초록 ▼

1. 연구개발 목표 및 내용
원자력시설 일차계통 및 대형기기 화학제염 시스템 개발
- 원자력발전소 일차계통 무착화성 화학제염 시스템 개발
- 원자력시설 대형기기 나노복합유체제염 시스템 개발
2. 연구결과·원자력시설 일차계통 화학제염 기술 개발
- 기존의 유기산 기조의 화학물질을 배제하고 2차 폐기물을 저감시킨 무착화성 화학 제염제 HyBRID(Hydrazine Base Reductive metal Ion Decontamination)를 개발하였음.
- PWR 조건에서 제염성능을 평가할 수 있는 벤치규모 일차계통 화학제염장치를 제작하였고 단위공정을 통합하여 부식산화막의 제염성능평가를 위한 연속식 제염공정 적용성 검증·대형기기 및 대면적 제염을 위한 나노복합유체 제염 기술 확보
- 상용실리카 함유 복합유체 제염제에 비해 거품 안정성과 제염성능이 향상된 자체 개발한 용매추출 메조다공성 실리카 함유 복합유체 제염제를 개발하였음
- 서울연구용 원자로 시편에 나노복합유체 제염 기술을 실증함으로써 (DF>10) 국내 원자력 대면적/대형기기 시설 해체에 대비한 제염 원천 기술을 확보하였으며, 제염 시 발생하는 이차폐기물의 양을 현저히 저감 예상

(출처 : 보고서 요약서 5p)

Abstract ▼

Ⅳ. Results and Proposal for Application
1. Development of chelating reagent-free chemical decontamination system for the primary coolant system of nuclear power plants

A new chemical decontamination agent with no use of organic acid or organic chelating agents has been developed in KAERI. The chemical decontamination agent is composed of hydrazine as a reducing agent, metal ion of Cu²⁺/Cu⁺ as a catalyst and inorganic acids such as HNO₃ or H₂SO₄ as a H⁺ ion donator. This agent was named as HyBRID(Hydrazine Based Reductive metal Ion Decontamination) which is the attribute of reducing decontamination agent of hydrazine and the catalytic effect of transition metal. From the series of dissolution experiments with the magnetite and nickel ferrite powder or metal oxides produced under the condition simulating the pressure and temperature of operating reactors, the principle formulation and the optimal chemical composition of HyBRID were derived, which was then performed on the specimens of the FTL(Fuel Test Loop of HANARO research reactor) resulting in outstanding decontamination performance.

Besides, HyBRID decontamination agents are featured highly resistive against the radioactivity which must be inevitably experienced during the decontamination around the reactor vessel. Comparison with other agents used in commercial decontamination technologies such as CAN-DEREM or CORD under 10,000 Gy radioactivity supported that HyBRID agents is four fold resistive than other methods with the lowest 6.8 % decomposition but 33 and 45 % for other agents of EDTA and oxalic acid respectively.

HyBRID decontamination generates the minimum of secondary wastes by complete decomposition of hydrazine that is a main chemical component of HyBRID as well as by precipitation and filtration treatment to remove the metal ions in the decontamination liquid waste. The reduction of total secondary waste of HyBRID decontamination was greater than 50 % of that from CORD process and specially spent ion exchange resins which is known hardly treatable can be generated only less than 20 % compared to CORD process.

In addition to the development of HyBRID reductive decontamination, KAERI also developed NP(Cu) oxidative decontamination process which minimizes general corrosion and local corrosion for the materials used on primary system. NP(Cu) process reduced the risk of pitting and IGA corrosions typically found after conventional NP process and lowered the general corrosion to less than 1/2 of that from NP process. By evaluating the general corrosion of NP(Cu)-HyBRID multi-step process with comparison to CITROX or CORD process, it had the corrosion rate less than 1/3, which proves the remarkable corrosion resistance of NP(Cu)-HyBRID.

A bench scale(17L) decontamination equipment which is capable of testing and evaluating the hydrodynamics conditions of the primary coolant system has been developed. The decontamination performance tests incorporated by once-through process have shown that the corrosion oxide formed on the surface can be completely removed by repeating SP-HyBRID process three to seven times depending on the characteristics of the simulated corrosion oxide. The decontamination process has been improved by evaluating the dissolution of nickel ferrite as a function of effective parameters.
In the study of modeling and process analysis for chemical decontamination process, the rate constants of the reaction were estimated from experiments to understand the dissolution mechanism of magnetite and nickel ferrite, which enabled the expanded expectation of dissolution behavior in case that the experimental conditions are hardly set.

In order to reduce the decontamination waste, the precipitation process of BaSO₄ was investigated and the bench-scale equipment was applied to demonstrate the process performance of decontamination waste. As a result, the decontamination liquid waste was treated with the capability of 100 L for 8 hours through precipitation and filtration process.
To evaluate the applicability of the HyBRID decontamination process aimed for the FSD decontamination, we have prepared the mini-scale loop test equipment in the site of hanul-2 plant and performed the decontamination test with the actual pipelines extracted from sampling line of primary system. The result of decontamination was 20 in DF and the complete removal of radioactive metal ions by the precipitation process was confirmed, which gave rist to the satisfied applicability of HyBRID process as a FSD technology.

The HyBRID decontamination agent was used to verify the decontamination performance of RCS specimens from Hanul unit #2 and the decontamination factor(DF) was 20 analyzing by MCA and DF was increased after reduction process rather than oxidation process.

2. Development of complex-fluid decontamination system containing nanoparticle for large components of nuclear facilities
Decyl glucoside having a higher foam stability was selected as main surfactant components compared to conventional nonionic surfactant, and mesoporous silica nanoparticles was determined for stabilizer among various silica nanoparticle structures such as mesoporous, core-shell and non-porous structures to increase foam stability.

The mesoporous silica nanoparticles prepared by HCl-EtOH solvent extraction were developed by KAERI, featuring to the excellent dispersion and foam stability. The foam decontamination agents containing KAERI silica nanoparticles, which has 20% higher foam stability and decontamination efficiency than that of conventional nanoparticles based foaming agents, show high DF over 10 from the demonstration test using contaminated components in KAERI Research Reactor.
The foam stability and foam-generation rate were increased higher than that of bottom-up generator using improved technique for top-down spray of foam generation in 300 L equipment.

The foam decontamination agents containing oxidizing agent and compatibility surfactant for oxidizing agent with silica nanoparticles has 25% higher decontamination efficiency than that of advanced foam decontamination agents for the demonstration test using radionuclide-contaminated specimen. From above R&D project, the fundamental results concerning the foam decontamination has been established to apply the large components of nuclear facilities.

(출처 : SUMMARY 16p)

목차 Contents

표지 ... 1
제 출 문 ... 3
보고서 요약서 ... 5
요 약 문 ... 7
SUMMARY ... 14
CONTENTS ... 21
목차 ... 23
표목차 ... 25
그림목차 ... 29
제 1 장 연구개발과제의 개요 ... 50
제 1 절 연구배경 ... 50
제 2 절 추진현황 및 연구내용 ... 52
1. 추진현황 ... 52
2. 연구내용 ... 53
제 2 장 국내외 기술개발 현황 ... 56
제 1 절 국내외 원전 일차계통 화학제염 기술개발 현황 ... 56
1. 국내 기술개발 현황 ... 56
2. 국외 기술개발 현황 ... 61
제 2 절 국내외 나노복합유체 제염 기술 개발 현황 ... 81
1. 국내 기술개발 현황 ... 81
2. 국외 기술개발 현황 ... 82
제 3 장 연구개발수행 내용 및 결과 ... 102
제 1 절 원전 일차계통 무착화성 화학제염 기술 개발 ... 102
1. 무착화성 화학제염제 개발 연구 ... 102
2. 무착화성 화학제염제 단위 공정 연구 ... 119
3. 무착화성 폐액 처리 공정 연구 ... 147
4. 화학제염에 의한 일차계통 재료의 종합 건전성 평가 ... 158
5. 무착화성 화학제염제 개발 연구 ... 191
6. 원전 일차계통 무착화성 화학제염 시스템 확보 ... 266
7. 결과요약 ... 302
제 2 절 대형기기 나노복합유체 제염 기술 개발 ... 304
1. 나노복합유체 특성 연구 ... 304
2. 나노복합유체 제조 연구 ... 326
3. 나노복합유체 제염 단위공정 연구 ... 355
4. 대형기기 나노복합유체 신제염 공정성능 최적화 ... 412
5. 대형기기 나노복합유체 신제염 시스템 확보 ... 437
6. 결과요약 ... 495
제 4 장 목표달성도 및 관련분야에의 기여도 ... 496
1. 목표달성도 ... 496
2. 대외기여도 ... 497
제 5 장 연구개발결과의 활용계획 ... 499
1. 기술적 측면 ... 499
2. 경제적 측면 ... 499
3. 사회적 측면 ... 500
제 6 장 연구개발과정에서 수집한 해외과학기술정보 ... 502
제 7 장 연구장비의 구축 및 활용 결과 ... 504
제 8 장 참고문헌 ... 506
끝페이지 ... 513

표/그림 (300)

표 Annual average radiation exposures at LWRs-1970-1998
표 Development history of decontamination technologies by Siemens
표 Development of decontamination technology by Siemens in terms of secondary waste reduction
표 Principle of HP-CORD UV process [2.1.5], Courtesy of AREVA
표 Typical condition CORD process.
표 Features of HP-CORD UV process.
표 Typical condition LOMI process.
표 Comparison of typical organic acid-based decontamination processes.
표 Features of typical organic acid-based decontamination processes.
표 Experimental protocol developed to plot the drainage kinetics of each of the foams under conditions close to industrial reality by virtue of the device
표 Stainless steel plate covered with adherent deposits are suspended in a 30 L column made of plexiglass in the device
표 Solutions created for testing (all percentage indicate percentage of reagent by weight in the decontamination solution)
표 Results of short-term vertical slip tests
표 Results of long-term vertical slip tests
표 Decontamination foam test in NNL.
표 Composition and experimental results for decontamination foam.
표 (a) Optical micrograph of the SU-8 microrods used as super stabilizers; (b) foam stabilized by rods; (c) micrograph of a single hairy air bubble covered by a layer of adsorbed rods; (d) single thin aqueous film formed from a suspension of SU-8 rods
표 (a) Time dependence of the volume of foams, Vf, formed with SU-8 rods. T (b) Time dependence of the volume of foams, Vf, formed in SU-8 rods
표 Comparison of the appearance and structure of foams stabilized by (a,d) 8.7 mM SDS, (b,e) a mixture of 8.7 mM SDS and 2.18 wt % SU-8 rods, and (c,f) 2.18 wt % SU-8 rods.
표 Diagram for decontamination using INL foam.
표 pH-dependent behavior of foams prepared in batch mode using PAA-stabilized PS latex particles (2.6 wt %, 0.1 M aqueous NaCl). Photograph of vessels taken 1 week after shaking an aqueous dispersion of particles at different pH values (given).
표 Volume of foam (V) produced at room temperature from 7 cm3 of water in the presence of fumed silica nanoparticles of different hydrophobicity (given as the percentage of SiOH on their surfaces).
표 Appearance of vessels at room temperature at 10 min (upper) and 13.5 h (lower) after homogenization of aqueous dispersions containing 0.86 wt/v% silica particles (of different hydrophobicities, given as the amount of SiOH - 62, 51, 42, 32, and 20 % - on surface) in pure water
표 Hierarchical features of the particle-stabilized foams containing short amphiphilic molecules. High-volume macroscopic foams (a) with bubble sizes within the range 10-50 ㎛ (b) are formed through the adsorption of submicrometer-sized colloidal particles at the air-liquid interface (c). Particles attach at the air-water interface as a result of the surface hydrophobicity imparted by the adsorbed amphiphilic molecules
표 Process of large and complex facility using decontamination foam in CEA.
표 Dissolved amount of magnetite on anode electrode
표 Experimental condition of pre-screening test.
$X-ray diffraction pattern of (a) pure Fe3O4, (b) after reaction with HNO3 + N2H4 + Mn2+ solution and (c) with HNO3 + N2H4 solution.$ 표 X-ray diffraction pattern of (a) pure Fe3O4, (b) after reaction with HNO3 + N2H4 + Mn2+ solution and (c) with HNO3 + N2H4 solution.
표 Experimental conditions for screening test 1.
$Dissolved fraction of magnetite in the presence of 3 kinds of candidate decontamination solutions.$ 표 Dissolved fraction of magnetite in the presence of 3 kinds of candidate decontamination solutions.
$Dissolved fraction of magnetite against time under 3 different HBF4 concentrations$ 표 Dissolved fraction of magnetite against time under 3 different HBF4 concentrations
$Dissolved fraction of magnetite against time under 3 different HNO3 concentrations$ 표 Dissolved fraction of magnetite against time under 3 different HNO3 concentrations
표 Experimental conditions for screening test 2.
$Dissolved fraction of magnetite in various candidate decontamination solution$ 표 Dissolved fraction of magnetite in various candidate decontamination solution
$Dissolved fraction of magnetite against time at CA+N2H4 system (90℃, pH 3, [Cu2+] = 0.0004 M, [Fe2+]T = 35.8 ppm).$ 표 Dissolved fraction of magnetite against time at CA+N2H4 system (90℃, pH 3, [Cu2+] = 0.0004 M, [Fe2+]T = 35.8 ppm).
$Dissolved fraction of magnetite against pH (2 hrs, 150 ℃, 0.01 g Fe3O4 in 200 ml).$ 표 Dissolved fraction of magnetite against pH (2 hrs, 150 ℃, 0.01 g Fe3O4 in 200 ml).
$Dissolved fraction of magnetite against$ 표 Dissolved fraction of magnetite against
$Dissolved fraction of magnetite against time (150℃, 0.01g Fe3O4 in 200 ml, [N2H4] = 0.007 M, pH 3).$ 표 Dissolved fraction of magnetite against time (150℃, 0.01g Fe3O4 in 200 ml, [N2H4] = 0.007 M, pH 3).
$Dissolved fraction of magnetite against [N2H4] (2hrs, 150℃, 0.01g Fe3O4 in 200 ml, pH 3).$ 표 Dissolved fraction of magnetite against [N2H4] (2hrs, 150℃, 0.01g Fe3O4 in 200 ml, pH 3).
표 Far-FTIR spectrum of Cu(I)(N2H5)Cl2.
표 Single crystal structure of Cu+(N2H5)+Cl2.
표 Bonding distance and angle of [Cu(I)(NH2NH3)Cl2]n.
표 Cyclic voltammogram of N2H4 (2 mM) + Cu (0.05 mM) solution and related aqueous solution [N2H4 (2 mM), N2H4 (2 mM) + Fe ion(0.05 mM), N2H4 (2 mM) + Cu (0.05 mM) + Fe ion (0.05 mM)].
표 Cyclic voltammogram of Cu+/Cu2+ system on ITO electrode
표 Variation of charge on ITO electrode against time.
표 Reaction scheme on the ITO electrode.
표 Solubility product and equilibrium constant of metal ions.
표 Maximum metal ion concentration in terms of pH
$Dissolved fraction of magnetite against time, (0.07M [N2H4], 5×10-4 M [Cu+], 95 ℃, pH 3, [Fe2+]T=35.8 ppm).$ 표 Dissolved fraction of magnetite against time, (0.07M [N2H4], 5×10-4 M [Cu+], 95 ℃, pH 3, [Fe2+]T=35.8 ppm).
$Dissolved fraction of magnetite against time (0.04 M [N2H4], pH 3, 5×10-4 M [Cu+], [Fe2+]T=35.8 ppm).$ 표 Dissolved fraction of magnetite against time (0.04 M [N2H4], pH 3, 5×10-4 M [Cu+], [Fe2+]T=35.8 ppm).
표 Arrhenius plot on the magnetite dissolution.
$Dissolved fraction of magnetite against time ([Cu+] = 5 × 10 -4 M, pH = 3, 95 ℃, [Fe2+]T = 35.8 ppm).$ 표 Dissolved fraction of magnetite against time ([Cu+] = 5 × 10 -4 M, pH = 3, 95 ℃, [Fe2+]T = 35.8 ppm).
$Dissolved fraction of magnetite against [Cu+] ([N2H4], = 0.07 M, 95℃, [Fe2+]T = 35.8 ppm).$ 표 Dissolved fraction of magnetite against [Cu+] ([N2H4], = 0.07 M, 95℃, [Fe2+]T = 35.8 ppm).
$Dissolved fraction of magnetite against time (0.07 M [N2H4], pH 3, 95 ℃, [Fe2+]T=35.8 ppm).$ 표 Dissolved fraction of magnetite against time (0.07 M [N2H4], pH 3, 95 ℃, [Fe2+]T=35.8 ppm).
표 Pourbaix diagram of Cu.
표 Schematic procedure and mechanisms of multi-step(oxidation and reduction) decontamination process involved in the magnetite dissolution.
표 Fabricated high temperature reactor.
표 Effect of temperature on the dissolution of magnetite.
표 Variation of [N2H4] against time ([N2H4] = 0.04 M, [Cu+] = 5 X 10-4 M, pH = 3).
표 Effect of [N2H4] on the dissolution of magnetite ([Cu+] = 5 X 10-4 M, pH = 3, 120 ℃).
표 Comparison of magnetite dissolution under two different temperatures of 70 ℃ and 95 ℃(For data assurance, varied conditions by Cu+ concentration were applied in experiments).
표 Result of magnetite dissolution by varied N2H4 amount with no presence of Cu+ ion in N2H4/H2SO4/Cu+ solution.
표 Comparison of Initial reaction rate by varied N2H4 amount with no presence of Cu+ ion in N2H4/H2SO4/Cu+ solution
$Dissolved fraction of Fe3O4 in solution as function of time for different values of pH (95 ℃, [N2H4]=10 mM).$ 표 Dissolved fraction of Fe3O4 in solution as function of time for different values of pH (95 ℃, [N2H4]=10 mM).
$Dissolved fraction of Fe3O4 with different concentration of N2H4 with the addition of 0.5 mM Cu2+ ions$ 표 Dissolved fraction of Fe3O4 with different concentration of N2H4 with the addition of 0.5 mM Cu2+ ions
표 Model of reaction rate change against time.
표 Comparison of initial dissolution rates of magnetite between N2H4/H2SO4/Cu+ and N2H4/HNO3/Cu+ decontamination processes.
표 Condition of multi-step decontamination for 304SS specimens.
표 Dissolved metal ion from stainless steel oxide layer, oxidation step([KMnO4] = 1 g/L, [HNO3] = 0.34 g/L, T= 95 ℃), reduction step ([N2H4] = 0.04 M, [Cu+] = 5 × 10 -4 M, pH 3, T = 95 ℃).
표 Dissolved metal ion from stainless steel oxide layer, oxidation step ( [KMnO4]= 1 g/L, [HNO3]=0.34 g/L, T= 95 0C), reduction step ([N2H4]=0.07 M, [Cu+]=5×10 -4 M, pH 3, T=95 ℃).
표 Dissolved metal ion from stainless steel oxide layer, oxidation step (([KMnO4] = 1 g/L, [HNO3] = 0.34 g/L, T = 95 ℃), reduction step ([N2H4] = 0.03 M, [Cu+] = 5×10 -4 M, pH 3, T = 120 ℃).
표 Dissolved metal ion from stainless steel oxide layer, oxidation step ([KMnO4] = 1 g/L, [HNO3] = 0.34 g/L, T = 95 ℃), reduction step ([N2H4] = 0.04 M, [Cu+] = 5×10 -4 M, pH 3, T = 120 ℃).
표 SEM image of stainless steel surface (X 500) before dissolution test and (b) photograph of stain steel specimen.
표 (a) SEM image of stainless steel surface (X 500) after dissolution test and (b) photograph of stain steel specimen.
표 Condition of multi-step decontamination for Inconel 600 experiments.
표 Dissolved metal ion from Inconel 600 oxide layer, oxidation step ([KMnO4] = 1 g/L, [HNO3] = 0.34 g/L, T = 95 ℃), reduction step ([N2H4] = 0.04 M, [Cu+] = 5 × 10 -4 M, pH 3, T = 120 ℃).
표 (a) SEM image of Inconel 600 surface (X 500) before dissolution test and (b) photograph of Inconel 600 specimen.
표 (a) SEM image of Inconel 600 surface (X 500) after dissolution test and (b) photograph of Inconel 600 specimen
표 Photographs of FTL specimens, (a) after the first reductive step and (b) after the second reductive step
표 Variation of contact dose rate according to the applied cycles,oxidation step ([KMnO4] = 0.61 g/L, [HNO3] = 0.34 g/L, T = 93 ℃, 10 hrs), reduction step ([N2H4] = 0.07 M, [Cu+] = 5 X 10 -4 M, pH 3, T = 95 ℃, 10 h).
표 Photographs of Inconel 600 specimen, (a) after the first reductive step and (b) after the second reductive step.
표 Change of [N2H4] against time at 80℃ ([Cu2+]0 = 5 × 10-4, [N2H4]0 = 4.4 × 10-2 M, pH 3, N2H4 : H2O2 = 1 : 13).
표 Change of [N2H4] against the accumulate volume of 30 % H2O2 at pH = 3 and 70 ℃.
표 Change of [N2H4] against the accumulate volume of 30 % H2O2 under different temp. and pH ((a) pH 2, (b) pH 3, (c) pH 4 (d) pH 5, [Cu2+]0 = 5 × 10-4 M).
표 Change of [N2H4] against the accumulate volume of 30 % H2O2 under different temp. and pH ((a) pH 2, (b) pH 3, (c) pH 4 (d) pH 5, [Cu2+]0 = 5 × 10-4 M).
표 Ion chromatogram of ammonium ion.
표 Ion chromatogram of nitrate ion.
표 Ion chromatogram of nitrite ion.
표 Decomposition of [N2H4] under varied absorbed doses
표 Decomposition of [NO3 -] under varied absorbed doses.
표 Variation of [NH4 +] against pH under two absorbed dose conditions [Cu2+]0 = 5 × 10-4 M.
표 Variation of [N2H4] against pH under two absorbed dose conditions [Cu2+]0 = 5 × 10-4 M.
표 Comparison of radiolysis characteristic among EDTA, oxalic acid and hydrazine against the absorbed dose.
표 Schematic representation of formation of radioactive deposits in PWRs.
표 Double layer structure of radioactive oxide in PWRs.
표 Chemical composition of double layer structure of oxide in PWRs
표 Four layer model of radioactive oxide in PWRs
표 Flow diagram of high temperature corrosion test loop system.
표 Photo of high temperature corrosion test loop.
표 Schematic diagram of semi-loop system.
표 Control of (a) temperature, (b) pressure and (c) dissolved O2 content in semi-loop.
표 Oxide surface corroded in various conditions.
표 Operating conditions for three corrosion tests
표 Surface appearance of oxide corroded each test of Table 22.
표 SEM photo of oxide corroded in (a) test 1, (b) test 2 and test 3 of Table 22.
표 TEM photo and line scan profiles of oxide corroded in test 1; (a) TEM photo, and profiles of (b) Cr, (c) Fe, (d) Ni and (e) O.
표 Properties of simulated grown-on and deposited oxide.
표 TEM photo and SAD pattern of the oxide corroded in test 1; (a) TEM photo, (b) SAD pattern.
표 General corrosion test specimen.
표 Crevice corrosion test specimen.
표 CERT specimen
표 Effect of pH on corrosion rates of Inconel-600 and 304SS in NP solution
표 Effect of pH on surface corrosion morphology of Inconel-600 and 304SS in NP solution
표 Effect of metal ion on the corrosion of Inconel-600 in typical NP condition ([KMnO4]=3.86 mM, pH =3, 20 h and 95 oC).
표 Effect of metal ion on the localized corrosion morphology of 304SS and Inconel-600 corroded in typical NP solution at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Effect of Fe3+ and Cr6+ ion on the localized corrosion morphology of Inconel-600 corroded in typical NP solution at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Comparison of general corrosion rate of Inconel-600 and 304 SS in the typical NP, NP(Cu) and AP solution at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Potentiodynamic polarization curve of Inconel-600 in the typical NP(a) and AP(b) solution overlapped with potential-pH equilibrium diagram for the system Cr-H2O and Mn-H2O system at 90 ℃.
표 Comparison of general corrosion rate of Inconel-600 and 304 SS in the HyBRID and oxalic acid(2000 ppm) at 95 ℃ for 20 h.
표 Optical microscopic image of surface morphology of Inconel-600 and 304 SS corroded in the HyBRID and oxalic acid(2000 ppm) at 95 ℃ for 20 h.
표 General corrosion rate of Inconel-600 and 304 SS corroded in the 2 cycle of multi-step decontamination process at 95 oC for 20 h
표 Surface appearance of Inconel-600 and 304 SS crevice-corroded in HyBRID, CITROX and CORD decontamination solution
표 Effect of pH on surface appearance of Inconel-600 and 304 SS crevice-corroded in HyBRID decontamination solution.
표 Effect of pH on surface appearance of Inconel-600 and 304 SS crevice-corroded in
표 Effect of pH on corrosion rate of Inconel-600 and 304 SS crevice-corroded in (a) CORD and (b) HyBRID decontamination solution.
표 Effect of pH on pitting morphology of 304 SS crevice-corroded in CORD decontamination solution; pH = (a) 1.8, (b) 2.0 and (c) 3.0.
표 Surface morphology of (a) Inconel-600 and (b) 304 SS crevice-corroded in HyBRID decontamination solution at the pH of 1.8.
표 SEM Photograph and chemical composition of the yellow powder on Alloy 600 crevice surface
표 SEM Photograph of Alloy 600 crevice surface corroded in OA solution at pH = 1.8 showing the metal islands and deposited material (NiC2O4).
표 Iron-related (a) and Nickel-related (b) species in OA-containing solutions and their overall dissociation constants or solubility products.
표 Oxalate base(a) and iron base(b) chemical composition of OA and Fe-containing solutions as a function of pH showing the maximum possibility of iron oxalate formation around pH 3.
표 Oxalate base(a) and nickel base(b) chemical composition of OA and Ni-containing solutions as a function of pH showing the maximum possibility of iron oxalate formation around pH 2.
표 Effect of total metal ion concentration on the (a) Ni-oxalate and (b) Fe-Oxalate distribution as a function of pH.
표 Plots of total metal ion concentration vs. maximum (a) Ni-oxalate and (b) Fe-Oxalate.
표 Summary of corrosion properties of Inconel-600 and 304SS.
표 Comparison of ultimated tension stress (UTS) of Inconel-600 before and after decontamination in HyBRID and CORD condition
표 Comparison of stress to strain curves of I-600 in high temperature HyBRID decontamination condition
표 Effect of temperature on UTS of Inconel-600 in high purity water, HyBRID and CORD decontamination solution.
표 Fracture surface morphology of Inconel-600 after CERT in (a) high purity water and (b) HyBRID and (c) CORD decontamination
표 Summary of mechanical properties of Inconel-600 CERT-tested in high temperature decontamination condition
표 P&ID of bench-scale(10 L) decontamination test process for reactor coolant system
표 Required linear velocities for RPV, SG-tube, and pipelines based on Kori-1 NPP design specifications when RHRP of primary system is used for the system decontamination
표 Design of decontamination test chamber
표 Picture of decontamination chamber w/ scafold of test specimen
표 Experimental condition of once-through decontamination process
표 Results of once-through experiment in terms of appearance of specimen and weight
표 Dissolved concentration of Fe and Cr in ppm from simulated oxide specimen by once-through process.
표 Growth of the double layer of inner and outer of oxide.
표 Four layer model of radioactive oxide in PWRs
표 Electron-beam evaporator.
표 XRD patterns of NiFe2O4 after heat treatment, as-deposited, and target.
표 SEM image of NiFe2O4 after (a) as-deposited and (b) heat treatment. (c) cross section image of NiFe2O4
표 EDS mapping image of Ni, Fe, O and spectrum.
표 XPS spectrum of the (a)Ni2p3/2, (b) Fe2p, and (c) O1s of the NiFe2O4
표 One-stage decontamination process and chemical composition after each step.
표 ORP and pH monitoring of a typical decontamination process.
표 Detail ORP and pH monitoring for the hydrazine decomposition step
표 Detail ORP and pH monitoring for the BaSO4 precipitation step
표 Small-scale waste treatment and process monitoring system
표 Continuous system monitoring for a typical decontamination and waste treatment process; (a) pH, (b) ORP, (c) conductivity.
표 Comparison of process monitoring without(a) and with(b) N2H4 decomposition.
표 Effect of temperature on the process monitoring curve; (a) 70 ℃, (b) 25 ℃.
표 Effect of temperature and flow speed on the particle size and particle morphology.
표 Solution of (a) 1 mM BCA + 0.1 mM Cu(NO3)2 (b) 1mM BCA + 0.1 mM Cu(NO3)2 + 10 mM hydrazine (c) 1 mM BCA + 0.1 mM Cu(NO3)2 + 10 mM ammonia borane
표 EC redox cycling of using UV-Vis spectroscopy(1 mM BCA, 0.1 mM Cu(NO3)2, 10 mM hydrazine, 10 mM ammonia borane).
표 Comparion of the current of potassium ferricyanide(III) on the Fe3O4 coated ITO electrode(quiet time 10 s, scan rate 20 mV/s).
표 Fe3O4를 증착한 ITO 전극에서 chronoamperometry를 이용하여 각 조건에서 potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) trihydrate의 anodic charge 비교를 통한 제염성 확인
표 Fe3O4를 증착한 ITO 전극에서 chronoamperometry를 이용하여 두 가지 copper complex (Cu(NO3)2, CuSO4)의 제염성 비교 (apply potential : 0.275 V, pulse width : 200 s)
표 Schematic priciple of Cu deposition.
표 Bare ITO 전극에서 Cu deposition 확인 (quiet time 10 s, scan rate 20 mV/s).
표 Fe3O4를 증착한 ITO 전극에서 Cu deposition 확 인 (quiet time 10 s, scan rate 20 mV/s).
표 Bare ITO 전극에서 Cl-가 존재할 때 Cu deposition 확인 (quiet time 10 s, scan rate 20 mV/s).
표 Fe3O4를 증착한 ITO 전극에서 Cl-가 존재할 때 Cu deposition 확인 (quiet time 10 s, scan rate 20 mV/s).
표 Effect of pH on corrosion rate of Inconel-600 and SUS304 in NP solution
표 Surface appearance of SUS304 and Inconel-600 after soaking in a NP and NP(Cu) solution at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Effect of pH on corrosion rate of Inconel-600 and SUS304 in (a) 2,000 ppm oxalic acid and (b) HyBRID solution.
표 Comparison of general corrosion rate of Inconel-600 and SUS304 in a 2,000 ppm oxalic acid and HyBRID solution.
표 Surface appearance of SUS304 and I-600 after soaking in a HyBRID and 2000 ppm oxalic acid solution at 95 ℃ for 20 h.
표 General corrosion rate of Inconel-600 and SUS304 in the 2 cycles of multi-step decontamination process at 95 ℃ for 20 h.
표 Surface appearance of I-690, I-600 and SUS304 after soaking in KMnO4+H2SO4 (pH=3.0) solution at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Surface appearance of I-690, I-600 and SUS304 after soaking in KMnO4 + H2SO4 + 0.5 mM CuSO4 (pH=3.0) solution at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Surface appearance of I-690, I-600 and SUS304 after soaking in KMnO4 + H2SO4 (pH=1.91) solution at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Surface appearance of I-690, I-600 and SUS304 after soaking in KMnO4 + H2SO4 + 0.5 mM CuSO4 (pH=1.91) solution at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Effect of pH on the general corrosion rate of Inconel-600, 690 and SUS304 in the SP and SP(Cu) solution at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Surface appearance and CRUD morphology of I-600 after soaking in KMnO4 + H2SO4 + 0.5mM CuSO4 (pH=1.91) solution at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Surface appearance and CRUD morphology of I-690 after soaking in KMnO4 + H2SO4 + 0.5 mM CuSO4 (pH=1.91) solution at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Surface appearance and CRUD morphology of SUS304 after soaking in KMnO4 + H2SO4 + 0.5 mM CuSO4 (pH=1.91) solution at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 General corrosion rate of Inconel-600, 690 and SUS304 in the NP, NP(Cu), SP and SP(Cu) solution at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Surface appearance of Inconel-600, 690 and SUS304 after soaking in the 50 mM N2H4 + H2SO4 solution with and without 0.5 mM CuSO4 at pH 3.0 and 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Surface appearance of Inconel-600, 690 and SUS304 after soaking in the 50 mM N2H4 + H2SO4 solution with and without 0.5 mM CuSO4 at pH 2.0 and 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Surface appearance of Inconel-600, 690 and SUS304 after soaking in the 50 mM N2H4 + H2SO4 solution with and without 0.5 mM CuSO4 at pH 1.5 and 95 ℃ for 20 h.
표 Effect of pH on general corrosion of Inconel-600, 690 and SUS304 after soaking in the 50 mM N2H4 + H2SO4 solution with and without 0.5 mM CuSO4 at 95 ℃ for 20 h.
표 Surface appearance of Inconel-600, 690 and SUS304 after soaking in the 50 mM N2H4 + H2SO4 + 0.5 mM CuCl2 (pH=3.0) solution at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Surface appearance of Inconel-600, 690 and SUS304 after soaking in the 50 mM N2H4 + H2SO4 + 0.5 mM CuCl2 (pH=2.0) solution at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Surface appearance of Inconel-600, 690 and SUS304 after soaking in the 50 mM N2H4 + H2SO4 + 0.5 mM CuCl2 (pH=1.51) solution at 95 oC for 20 h
표 Surface appearance and CRUD analysis of stainless steel after socking in the 50 mM N2H4 + H2SO4 + 0.5 mM CuCl2 (pH=1.51) solution at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Effect of pH on corrosion rate of SUS304, I-600 and I-690 in the solution of 50 mM N2H4 + H2SO4 + 0.5 mM CuCl2 at 95 oC for 20 h.
표 Summary of corrosion behavior of Inconel-600, 690 and SUS304 in various condition of HyBRID solution
표 Variation of sulphate ion concentration after precipitation by Ba(OH)2, Sr(OH)2 and Ba(OH)2+Sr(OH)2 mixture
표 Size distribution of BaSO4, (a) 5 min, 2.55 μm, (b) 35 min, 2.71 μm, (c) 65 min, 2.90 μm
표 Size distribution of SrSO4, (a) 5 min, 5.99 μm, (b) 35 min, 6.17 μm, (c) 65 min, 10.30 μm
표 Concentration of metal ions after sulphate precipitation (after 72 hours)
표 Conceptual design of the laboratory scale filter press
표 Filter support plate (left) and filter press section (right).
표 Filtering bleb for tests, (a) PP900D, (b) PP1800D, (c) PP450D and (d) PP plain double weave, 60X.
표 Characteristics of filtering bleb for filter press tests
표 Results of filtration efficiency for filtering blebs (based on 3 cycles)
표 Profiles of chemical reagents in Fe3O4 dissolution w/ N2H4 & H2SO4 solution
표 Profiles of chemical reagents in Fe3O4 dissolution w/ N2H4/H2SO4/Cu2+ solution
표 Values of rate constants in magnetite dissolution
표 Profiles of chemical reagents in NiFe2O4 dissolution w/ N2H4 & H2SO4 solution
표 Standard Gibbs energies of formation
표 Comparison of the change of Gibbs free energy of formation for Fe3O4 and NiFe2O4
표 ORP and pH change(upper) during the BaSO4 precipitation and color change of the solution(lower).
표 Comparison of chemical concentration in the solution between before and after BaSO4 precipitation
표 Calculation table of solid waste volume for 1 cycle HMnO4 + HyBRID decontamination process
표 Calculation table of solid waste volume for 1 cycle KMnO4 + HyBRID decontamination process.
표 Calculation table of solid waste volume for 1 cycle HMnO4 + CORD decontamination process
표 Calculation table of solid waste volume for 1 cycle KMnO4 + CITROX decontamination process
표 Comparison of total waste for various decontamination processes
표 Comparison of ion-exchange resin for various decontamination processes.
표 Comparison of radioactivity between before precipitation and after precipitation during the HyBRID process for the decontamination of the HANUL#4 primary side specimen.
표 Design concept of bench-scale waste treatment system
표 P&I diagram of bench-scale waste treatment system.
표 Schematic diagram of solution injection and mixing system.
표 Photograph of bench-scale waste treatment system.
표 Lab-scale candle filtration system.
표 Flow rate and treated water volume vs. time curves.
표 A model picture of candle cake (a) and BaSO4 cake (b) prepared by candle filtration from simulated decontamination solution
표 Operation procedure of candle filtration system.
표 Test Results for the beach-scale filtration system
표 Concentration of sulphate and metal ions in decontamination waste.
표 The photograph of Taylor reactor.
표 SEM image of BaSO4 particles synthesized by batch-type(a) and Taylor reactor(b).
표 Particle size distribution of BaSO4 particles synthesized by batch-type(a) and Taylor reactor(b).
표 The morphology of BaSO4 particles according to the reaction time(injection speed = 2.5 ml/min).
표 Inconel 690 specimen and surface dose withdrawn from Kori 3 NPP.
표 Comparison of decontamination reagents and chemicals between
표 The oxide of specimen at each stage.
표 Comparison of decontamination between HyBRID and CORD.
표 Image and schematic of specimen for decontamination experiment
표 P&I diagram of chemical decontamination system.
표 Effective dose and decontamination factor of 1cm specimen.
표 Requirements for the formation and stabilization of foam.
표 Components of decontamination foam.
표 Components and mail requirement of decontamination foam.
표 Variation of foam volume in 0.01, 0.1 and 1% SDS and Triton X-100
표 Variation of foam volume in 0.1 and 0.1 % SDS and Triton X-100 at pH 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9.
표 Variation of foam volume in 0.1 % TX-100, M100, M440N, and SDS.
표 Product name, description, and viscosity of surfactants.
표 Variation of foam volume and liquid volume in 0.1 % M440N, SDS and Triton X-100
표 Variation of foam volume and liquid volume in 0.1 % M440N without and with dodecanol
표 Variation of foam volume and liquid volume in foam of 0.1 % M440N with 0.1 % Xanthan gum, geltain, glycerol, CMC and without viscosifier.
표 Selection of nanoparticle to enhance the performance of complex-fluid
표 Representative SEM and TEM images of monodispersive core-shell silica nanoparticles with mesoporous shell synthesized by using the amount of CTABr(0.24 g) and TEOS
표 Characteristic of core-shell mesoporous silica NPs.
표 XRD patterns of mesoporous silica nanoparticles synthesized according to various solvent composition composed of DI H2O and EtOH
표 N2 sorption isotherms and their corresponding pore size distribution curves of mesoporous silica nanoparticles synthesized according to various solvent composition composed of DI H2O and EtOH.
표 Characteristic of mesoporous silica synthesized with various formulation of solvent.
표 XRD patterns of mesoporous silica nanoparticles synthesized by varying the amount of NH4OH.
표 Characteristic of mesoporous silica synthesized with various amount of ammonia
표 Variation of foam volume and liquid volume in foam of various M440N concentration (0.05, 0.1, 1 and 5 % M440N) containing 2 % M-5.
표 Variation of foam volume and liquid volume in foam of various M-5 SiO2 NPs concentration (0, 1, 2.5, and 5% M-5) containing 1 % M440N surfactant
표 (a) Variation of liquid volume in 1 % M440N with 1 % M-5, non-porous NPs, core-shell NPs, and mesoporous NPs, and SEM images of (b) SiO2 non-porous NPs, (c) core shell NPs, and (d) mesoporous NPs
표 Variation of liquid volume in 1 % M440N with 1 % KAERI 1 (100 nm), KAERI 2 (120 nm), and KAERI 3 (175 nm).
표 Components of complex-fluid of CEA and KAERI.
표 Comparison of foam stability of CEA and KAERI.
표 Mechanisms of stabilization of colloidal particles.
표 A mimetic diagram of interaction energies between particles in short and long ranges and colloidal particle distribution in a foam film
표 Requirements for the formation and stabilization of foam.
표 Factors affecting to interaction between particles regarding to dispersion stability
표 Zeta potential for the effect of pH (pH = 2, 4, 6, and 10 in 1 wt.% M-100 with 1 wt.% M-5 silica nanoparticles).
표 Zeta potential for the effect of NaCl (0, 0.1, and 1 % NaCl in 1 wt.% M100 at pH=2 with 1 wt.% M-5 silica nanoparticles).
표 Size distribution by the effect of NaCl concentration (0, 0.1, and 1 % NaCl in 1 % M-100 at pH 2 with 1 % M-5 silica nanoparticles).
표 TEM images of mesoporous core-shell silica NPs with various sizes and mesoporous shell thickness.
표 SEM and TEM images of mesoporous hollow capsules with various sizes and mesoporous shell thickness
표 TEM images of mesoporous silica NPs synthesized by varying the amount of TEOS and CTABr.
표 EM images of (a) KAERI 1 nano-particles synthesized under 70 ℃ for overnight and (b-d) KAERI 1-3 nano-particles synthesized under ambient temperature for 1 h, respectively.
표 N2 sorption isotherms of the calcined mesoporous silica NPs and their corresponding pore size distribution diagram
표 XRD patterns of the calcined KAERI-1, 2, and 3.
표 TEM images of mesoporous silica NPs synthesized by varying the amount of the NH4OH.
표 N2 sorption isotherms of the calcined mesoporous silica NPs and their corresponding pore size distribution diagram.
표 XRD patterns of the calcined mesoporous silica NPs.
표 SEM images of the silica NPs with various sizes synthesized using modified Stöber method
표 Schematic illustration for the synthesis of surface-modified silica NPs using various silane coupling agents.
표 Typical silane coupling agents used for surface modification of silica NPs.
표 FT-IR analysis (left) of Cn-SiO2 NPs (right) synthesized using Cn-alkoxy silane (n = 1, 3, 8, 18) as a silane coupling agent
표 Representative zeta potential distribution curve of C8-SiO2 NPs (1.0%).
표 Surface property of (a) SiO2 NPs (0 – 1.0 %) and (b) Cn-SiO2 NPs modified using Cn-alkoxy silane (n = 1, 3, 8, 18; 0.5 %).
표 Foam stability and liquid volume in the foam of nano-complex fluids prepared using the non-modified SiO2 NPs and C8-SiO2 NPs (0.25 ~ 1.0 %).
표 Principles of film thickness measurement using reflection of white light
표 Measured film thickness after 1 min from its formulation.
표 Observation of film thickness according to different type of ingredients.
표 Dynamic foam analysis without nanoparticles.
표 Dynamic foam analysis with nanoparticles (Black dots on the foam stand for nanoparticle placed on the interface).
표 The process of decontamination foam containing nanoparticles
$(a) Foam volume and (b) liquid fraction of 1% EM 100 containing various concentrations (0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 3, and 5 wt.%) of silica NPs at pH 2 for 1 h.$ 표 (a) Foam volume and (b) liquid fraction of 1% EM 100 containing various concentrations (0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 3, and 5 wt.%) of silica NPs at pH 2 for 1 h.
$(a) Foam volume and (b) liquid fraction of 0.1 % EM 100 containing various concentration of silica NPs (0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 3, and 5 wt.%) at pH 2 for 1 h.$ 표 (a) Foam volume and (b) liquid fraction of 0.1 % EM 100 containing various concentration of silica NPs (0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 3, and 5 wt.%) at pH 2 for 1 h.
표 Viscosity dependence on the concentration of silica NPs (0 - 5 wt.% NPs, 1 % M-100, pH 2).
표 Relationship between viscosity and the half-life of liquid volume in foam, τ1/2 (s) at (a) pH 7 and (b) pH 2.

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Development of advanced decontamination technologies for nuclear facilities 원문보기

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