Ahn, Dae-Gyun
(Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology)
,
Shin, Hye-Jin
(Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology)
,
Kim, Mi-Hwa
(Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology)
,
Lee, Sunhee
(Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology)
,
Kim, Hae-Soo
(Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology)
,
Myoung, Jinjong
(Korea Zoonosis Research Institute and Genetic Engineering Research Institute, Jeonbuk National University)
,
Kim, Bum-Tae
(Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology)
,
Kim, Seong-Jun
(Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology)
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which causes serious respiratory illness such as pneumonia and lung failure, was first reported in Wuhan, the capital of Hubei, China. The etiological agent of COVID-19 has been confirmed as a novel coronavirus, now known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coro...
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which causes serious respiratory illness such as pneumonia and lung failure, was first reported in Wuhan, the capital of Hubei, China. The etiological agent of COVID-19 has been confirmed as a novel coronavirus, now known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which is most likely originated from zoonotic coronaviruses, like SARS-CoV, which emerged in 2002. Within a few months of the first report, SARS-CoV-2 had spread across China and worldwide, reaching a pandemic level. As COVID-19 has triggered enormous human casualties and serious economic loss posing global threat, an understanding of the ongoing situation and the development of strategies to contain the virus's spread are urgently needed. Currently, various diagnostic kits to test for COVID-19 are available and several repurposing therapeutics for COVID-19 have shown to be clinically effective. In addition, global institutions and companies have begun to develop vaccines for the prevention of COVID-19. Here, we review the current status of epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and vaccine development for COVID-19.
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which causes serious respiratory illness such as pneumonia and lung failure, was first reported in Wuhan, the capital of Hubei, China. The etiological agent of COVID-19 has been confirmed as a novel coronavirus, now known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which is most likely originated from zoonotic coronaviruses, like SARS-CoV, which emerged in 2002. Within a few months of the first report, SARS-CoV-2 had spread across China and worldwide, reaching a pandemic level. As COVID-19 has triggered enormous human casualties and serious economic loss posing global threat, an understanding of the ongoing situation and the development of strategies to contain the virus's spread are urgently needed. Currently, various diagnostic kits to test for COVID-19 are available and several repurposing therapeutics for COVID-19 have shown to be clinically effective. In addition, global institutions and companies have begun to develop vaccines for the prevention of COVID-19. Here, we review the current status of epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and vaccine development for COVID-19.
* AI 자동 식별 결과로 적합하지 않은 문장이 있을 수 있으니, 이용에 유의하시기 바랍니다.
이론/모형
has started phase I clinical trials for mRNA-1273, an mRNA vaccine, encoding viral spike (S) protein of SARS-CoV-2. It was designed in collaboration with the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) [82]. In contrast to conventional vaccines which are produced in a cell culture system, Moderna’s mRNA vaccine is designed in silico, which enables the rapid development and evaluation of vaccine efficacy [83].
성능/효과
For the treatment of COVID-19 cases in China, patients were treated with chloroquine to test the efficacy and safety of this antiviral agent candidate against SARS-CoV-2 infection. The results of trials demonstrated that chloroquine inhibits the exacerbation of COVID-19 [55]. Based on this finding, the experts from the government and organizer of clinical trials suggested that chloroquine is a promising antiviral agent against SARS-CoV-2.
참고문헌 (104)
1 Lu R Zhao X Li J Niu P Yang B Wu H 2020 Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding Lancet 395 565 574 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30251-8 32007145
2 Gorbalenya AE Baker SC Baric RS de Groot RJ Drosten C Gulyaeva AA 2020 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: the species and its viruses -a statement of the coronavirus study group BioRxiv. 20200207 937862 10.1101/2020.02.07.937862
3 Sola I Almazan F Zuniga S Enjuanes L 2015 Continuous and discontinuous RNA synthesis in coronaviruses Annu. Rev. Virol. 2 265 288 10.1146/annurev-virology-100114-055218 26958916
4 Fehr AR Perlman S 2015 Coronaviruses: an overview of their replication and pathogenesis Methods Mol. Biol. 1282 1 23 10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1 25720466
5 Fung TS Liu DX 2019 Human coronavirus: host-pathogen interaction Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 73 529 557 10.1146/annurev-micro-020518-115759 31226023
6 Li W Shi Z Yu M Ren W Smith C Epstein JH 2005 Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses Science 310 676 679 10.1126/science.1118391 16195424
7 Corman VM Ithete NL Richards LR Schoeman MC Preiser W Drosten C 2014 Rooting the phylogenetic tree of middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus by characterization of a conspecific virus from an African bat.J Virol. 88 11297 11303 10.1128/JVI.01498-14 25031349
8 Zhou P Yang XL Wang XG Hu B Zhang L Zhang W 2020 A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin Nature 259 270 273 10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7 32015507
9 Ji W Wang W Zhao X Zai J Li X 2020 Cross-species transmission of the newly identified coronavirus 2019-nCoV J. Med. Virol. 92 433 440 10.1002/jmv.25682 31967321
10 Did pangolins spread the China coronavirus to people? Available from https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00364-2#ref-CR1 Accessed 28 Feb 2020
11 Liu P Chen W Chen JP 2019 Viral Metagenomics Revealed Sendai Virus and Coronavirus Infection of Malayan Pangolins (Manis javanica) Viruses 11 pii: E979 10.3390/v11110979 31652964
12 Graham RL Donaldson EF Baric RS 2013 A decade after SARS: strategies for controlling emerging coronaviruses Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 11 836 848 10.1038/nrmicro3143 24217413
13 Peiris JS Lai ST Poon LL Guan Y Yam LY Lim W 2003 Coronavirus as a possible cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome Lancet 361 1319 1325 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13077-2 12711465
14 Yang X Yu Y Xu J Shu H Xia Ja Liu H 2020 Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a single-centered, retrospective, observational study Lancet Respir. Med. pii: S2213-2600(20)30079-5. 10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30079-5 32105632
15 Zhang JJ Dong X Cao YY Yuan YD Yang YB Yan YQ 2020 Clinical characteristics of 140 patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 in Wuhan, China Allergy doi: 10.1111/all.14238. [Epub ahead of print] 10.1111/all.14238 32077115
17 Willman M Kobasa D Kindrachuk J 2019 A comparative analysis of factors influencing two outbreaks of Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome (MERS) in Saudi Arabia and South Korea Viruses 11 pii: E1119 10.3390/v11121119 31817037
18 Reusken CB Schilp C Raj VS De Bruin E Kohl RH Farag EA 2016 MERS-CoV infection of alpaca in a region where MERS-CoV is endemic Emerg. Infect. Dis. 22 1129 1131 10.3201/eid2206.152113 27070501
19 WHO Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) SITUATION REPORT - 1 21 JANUARY 2020 Available from https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200121-sitrep-1-2019-ncov.pdf?sfvrsn=20a99c10_4 Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
20 WHO Report of the WHO-China Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Available from https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/who-china-joint-mission-on-covid-19-final-report.pdf Accessed 02 Mar. 2020
21 WHO Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation Report - 55 (15 Mar 2020) Available from https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200315-sitrep-55-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=33daa5cb_8 Accessed 19 Mar. 2020
22 WHO Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation Report - 26 (15 Feb 2020) Available from https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200215-sitrep-26-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=a4cc6787_2 Accessed 02 Mar 2020
23 KCDC COVID-19 situation reports in South Korea (24 Feb 2020) Available from https://www.cdc.go.kr/board/board.es?mid=a20501000000&bid=0015&act=view&list_no= 366324&tag=&nPage=1 Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
24 KCDC COVID-19 situation reports in South Korea (18 Feb 2020) Available from https://www.cdc.go.kr/board/board.es?mid=a20501000000&bid=0015&act=view&list_no= 366228&tag=&nPage=3 Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
25 KCDC COVID-19 situation reports in South Korea (01 Mar 2020) Available from https://www.cdc.go.kr/board/board.es?mid=a20501000000&bid=0015&act=view&list_no= 366410&tag=&nPage=1 Accessed 02 Mar. 2020
26 WHO Summary of probable SARS cases with onset of illness from 1 November 2002 to 31 July 2003 Available from https://www.who.int/csr/sars/country/table2004_04_21/en/ Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
27 WHO Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) monthly summary, November 2019 Available from https://www.who.int/emergencies/mers-cov/en/ Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
28 Pan X Chen D Xia Y Wu X Li T Ou X 2020 Asymptomatic cases in a family cluster with SARS-CoV-2 infection Lancet Infect. Dis. pii: S1473-3099 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30114-6 32087116
29 Bai Y Yao L Wei T Tian F Jin DY Chen L 2020 Presumed Asymptomatic Carrier Transmission of COVID-19 JAMA doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.2565. [Epub ahead of print] 10.1001/jama.2020.2565 32083643
30 Rothe C Schunk M Sothmann P Bretzel G Froeschl G Wallrauch C 2020 Transmis sion of 2019-nCoV infection from an asymptomatic contact in Germany N. Engl. J. Med. 382 970 971 10.1056/NEJMc2001468 32003551
31 Chen Y Chan KH Kang Y Chen H Luk HK Poon RW 2015 A sensitive and specific antigen detection assay for Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus Emerg. Microbes Infect. 4 e26 10.1038/emi.2015.26 26421268
32 Meyer B Drosten C Muller MA 2014 Serological assays for emerging coronaviruses: challenges and pitfalls Virus Res. 194 175 183 10.1016/j.virusres.2014.03.018 24670324
33 Zhu N Zhang D Wang W Li X Yang B Song J 2020 A Novel Coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019 N. Engl. J. Med. 382 727 733 10.1056/NEJMoa2001017 31978945
34 Wang C Horby PW Hayden FG Gao GF 2020 A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern Lancet 395 470 473 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30185-9 31986257
35 Corman VM Landt O Kaiser M Molenkamp R Meijer A Chu DKW 2020 Detection of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) by real-time RT-PCR Euro Surveill. 25 3 doi: 10.2807/1560-7917 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.3.2000045 31992387
36 WHO Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) technical guidance: Laboratory testing for 2019-nCoV in humans Available from https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/laboratory-guidance Accessed 02 Mar. 2020
37 Wang Y Wang W Xu L Zhou X Shokrollahi E Felczak K 2016 Cross talk between nucleotide synthesis pathways with cellular immunity in constraining hepatitis E virus replication Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 60 2834 2848 10.1128/AAC.02700-15 26926637
38 Debing Y Emerson SU Wang Y Pan Q Balzarini J Dallmeier K 2014 Ribavirin inhibits in vitro hepatitis E virus replication through depletion of cellular GTP pools and is moderately synergistic with alpha interferon Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 58 267 273 10.1128/AAC.01795-13 24145541
39 Leyssen P Balzarini J De Clercq E Neyts J 2005 The predominant mechanism by which ribavirin exerts its antiviral activity in vitro against flaviviruses and paramy-xoviruses is mediated by inhibition of IMP dehydrogenase J. Virol. 79 1943 1947 10.1128/JVI.79.3.1943-1947.2005 15650220
40 De Clercq E 2019 New nucleoside analogues for the treatment of hemorrhagic fever virus infections Chem. Asian J. 14 3962 3968 10.1002/asia.201900841 31389664
41 Wang M Cao R Zhang L Yang X Liu J Xu M 2020 Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro Cell Res. 30 269 271 10.1038/s41422-020-0282-0 32020029
42 So LK Lau AC Yam LY Cheung TM Poon E Yung RW 2003 Development of a standard treatment protocol for severe acute respiratory syndrome Lancet 361 1615 1617 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13265-5 12747883
43 Al-Tawfiq JA Momattin H Dib J Memish ZA 2014 Ribavirin and interferon therapy in patients infected with the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: an observational study Int. J. Infect. Dis. 20 42 46 10.1016/j.ijid.2013.12.003 24406736
44 Zumla A Chan JF Azhar EI Hui DS Yuen KY 2016 Coronaviruses - drug discovery and therapeutic options Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 15 327 347 10.1038/nrd.2015.37 26868298
45 Choy M 2016 Pharmaceutical approval update P T. 41 416 441 27408516
46 Sheahan TP Sims AC Graham RL Menachery VD Gralinski LE Case JB 2017 Broad-spectrum antiviral GS-5734 inhibits both epidemic and zoonotic coronaviruses Sci. Transl. Med. 9 10.1126/scitranslmed.aal3653 28659436
47 Mulangu S Dodd LE Davey RT Jr Tshiani Mbaya O Proschan M Mukadi D 2019 A Randomized, controlled trial of ebola virus disease therapeutics N. Engl. J. Med. 381 2293 2303 10.1056/NEJMoa1910993 31774950
48 Holshue ML DeBolt C Lindquist S Lofy KH Wiesman J Bruce H 2020 First Case of 2019 Novel Coronavirus in the United States N. Engl. J. Med. 382 929 936 10.1056/NEJMoa2001191 32004427
49 Yan Y Zou Z Sun Y Li X Xu KF Wei Y 2013 Anti-malaria drug chloroquine is highly effective in treating avian influenza A H5N1 virus infection in an animal model Cell Res. 23 300 302 10.1038/cr.2012.165 23208422
50 Savarino A Di Trani L Donatelli I Cauda R Cassone A 2006 New insights into the antiviral effects of chloroquine Lancet Infect. Dis. 6 67 69 10.1016/S1473-3099(06)70361-9 16439323
51 Kono M Tatsumi K Imai AM Saito K Kuriyama T Shirasawa H 2008 Inhibition of human coronavirus 229E infection in human epithelial lung cells (L132) by chloroquine: involvement of p38 MAPK and ERK Antiviral Res. 77 150 152 10.1016/j.antiviral.2007.10.011 18055026
52 Vincent MJ Bergeron E Benjannet S Erickson BR Rollin PE Ksiazek TG 2005 Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread Virol. J. 2 69 10.1186/1743-422X-2-69 16115318
53 Keyaerts E Vijgen L Maes P Neyts J Van Ranst M 2004 In vitro inhibition of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus by chloroquine Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 323 264 268 10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.08.085 15351731
54 Savarino A Boelaert JR Cassone A Majori G Cauda R 2003 Effects of chloroquine on viral infections: an old drug against today's diseases? Lancet Infect. Dis. 3 722 727 10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00806-5 14592603
55 Gao J Tian Z Yang X 2020 Breakthrough: Chloroquine phosphate has shown apparent efficacy in treatment of COVID-19 associated pneumonia in clinical studies Biosci. Trends 14 72 73 10.5582/bst.2020.01047 32074550
56 Wu CY Jan JT Ma SH Kuo CJ Juan HF Cheng YS 2004 Small molecules targeting severe acute respiratory syndrome human coronavirus Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101 10012 10017 10.1073/pnas.0403596101 15226499
57 Mukherjee P Desai P Ross L White EL Avery MA 2008 Structure-based virtual screening against SARS-3CL(pro) to identify novel non-peptidic hits Bioorg. Med. Chem. 16 4138 4149 10.1016/j.bmc.2008.01.011 18343121
58 Chu CM Cheng VC Hung IF Wong MM Chan KH Chan KS 2004 Role of lopinavir/ritonavir in the treatment of SARS: initial virological and clinical findings Thorax. 59 252 256 10.1136/thorax.2003.012658 14985565
59 Chan KS Lai ST Chu CM Tsui E Tam CY Wong MM 2003 Treatment of severe acute respiratory syndrome with lopinavir/ritonavir: a multicentre retrospective matched cohort study Hong Kong Med. J. 9 399 406 14660806
60 MSIT Research projects initiation for drug repositioning study for COVID-19 treatment Available from https://www.msit.go.kr/web/msipContents/contentsView.do?cateId=_policycom2&artId=2657968 Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
61 Zhang C Maruggi G Shan H Li J 2019 Advances in mRNA vaccines for infectious diseases Front Immunol. 10 594 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00594 30972078
63 Pronker ES Weenen TC Commandeur H Claassen EH Osterhaus AD 2013 Risk in vaccine research and development quantified PLoS One 8 e57755 10.1371/journal.pone.0057755 23526951
65 Du L He Y Zhou Y Liu S Zheng BJ Jiang S 2009 The spike protein of SARS-CoV--a target for vaccine and therapeutic development Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 7 226 236 10.1038/nrmicro2090 19198616
66 Coutard B Valle C de Lamballerie X Canard B Seidah NG Decroly E 2020 The spike glycoprotein of the new coronavirus 2019-nCoV contains a furin-like cleavage site absent in CoV of the same clade Antiviral Res. 176 104742 10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.104742 32057769
67 Li F 2016 Structure, function, and evolution of coronavirus spike proteins Annu. Rev. Virol. 3 237 261 10.1146/annurev-virology-110615-042301 27578435
68 Sun C Chen L Yang J Luo C Zhang Y Li J 2020 SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV Spike-RBD structure and receptor binding comparison and potential implications on neutralizing antibody and vaccine development BioRxiv. doi: 10.1101/2020.02.16.951723 10.1101/2020.02.16.951723
69 He Y Zhou Y Liu S Kou Z Li W Farzan M 2004 Receptor-binding domain of SARS-CoV spike protein induces highly potent neutralizing antibodies: implication for developing subunit vaccine Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 324 773 781 10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.09.106 15474494
71 Bisht H Roberts A Vogel L Subbarao K Moss B 2005 Neutralizing antibody and protective immunity to SARS coronavirus infection of mice induced by a soluble recombinant polypeptide containing an N-terminal segment of the spike glycoprotein Virology 334 160 165 10.1016/j.virol.2005.01.042 15780866
72 Clover Biopharmaceuticals vaccines programs Available from http://www.cloverbiopharma.com/index.php?m= content&c=index&a=lists&catid=42 Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
73 CEPI and GSK announce collaboration to strengthen the global effort to develop a vaccine for the 2019-nCoV virus Available from https://www.gsk.com/en-gb/media/press-releases/cepi-and-gsk-announce-collaboration-to-strengthen-the-global-effort-to-develop-a-vaccine-for-the-2019-ncov-virus/ Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
74 Significant step' in COVID-19 vaccine quest Available from https://www.uq.edu.au/news/article/2020/02/significant-step%E2%80%99-covid-19-vaccine-quest Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
75 CEPI to fund three progrannes to develop vaccines against the novel coronavirus (nCoV-2019) Available from https://cepi.net/news_cepi/cepi-to-fund-three-programmes-to-develop-vaccines-against-the-novel-coronavirus-ncov-2019 Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
76 Yang ZY Kong WP Huang Y Roberts A Murphy BR Subbarao K 2004 A DNA vaccine induces SARS coronavirus neutralization and protective immunity in mice Nature 428 561 564 10.1038/nature02463 15024391
77 Sardesai NY Weiner DB 2011 Electroporation delivery of DNA vaccines: prospects for success Curr. Opin. Immunol. 23 421 429 10.1016/j.coi.2011.03.008 21530212
78 Inovio Accelerates Timeline for COVID-19 DNA Vaccine INO-4800 Available from http://ir.inovio.com/news-and-media/news/press-release-details/2020/Inovio-Accelerates-Timeline-for-COVID-19-DNA-Vaccine-INO-4800/default.aspx Accessed 03 Mar. 2020
79 Inovio's produc pipeline Available from https://www.inovio.com/product-pipeline Accessed 20 Feb. 2020
80 dMAb Technology platform Available from https://www.inovio.com/technology#dmab Accessed 20 Feb. 2020
81 Pardi N Hogan MJ Porter FW Weissman D 2018 mRNA vaccines - a new era in vaccinology Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 17 261 279 10.1038/nrd.2017.243 29326426
82 Moderna's pipeline Available from https://www.modernatx.com/pipeline Accessed 20 Feb. 2020
83 mRNA platform: Enabling Drug Discovery & Development Available from https://www.modernatx.com/mrna-technology/mrna-platform-enabling-drug-discovery-development Accessed 20 Feb. 2020
84 hyFc platform Available from http://www.genexine.com/m21.php Accessed 20 Feb. 2020
85 Seo YB Im SJ Namkoong H Kim SW Choi YW Kang MC 2014 Crucial roles of interleukin-7 in the development of T follicular helper cells and in the induction of humoral immunity J. Virol. 88 8998 9009 10.1128/JVI.00534-14 24899182
86 Lee JH Cho JH Yeo J Lee SH Yang SH Sung YC 2013 The pharmacology study of a new recombinant TNF receptor-hyFc fusion protein Biologicals 41 77 83 10.1016/j.biologicals.2012.09.001 23190454
87 Loset GA Roux KH Zhu P Michaelsen TE Sandlie I 2004 Differential segmental flexibility and reach dictate the antigen binding mode of chimeric IgD and IgM: implications for the function of the B cell receptor J. Immunol. 172 2925 2934 10.4049/jimmunol.172.5.2925 14978095
88 Kang MC Park HW Choi DH Choi YW Park Y Sung YC 2017 Plasmacytoid dendritic cells contribute to the protective immunity induced by intranasal treatment with Fc-fused interleukin-7 against lethal influenza virus infection Immune Netw. 17 343 351 10.4110/in.2017.17.5.343 29093655
90 Khandia R Munjal A Dhama K Karthik K Tiwari R Malik YS 2018 Modulation of Dengue/Zika Virus pathogenicity by antibody-dependent enhancement and strategies to protect against enhancement in Zika Virus infection Front Immunol. 9 597 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00597 29740424
91 Wan Y Shang J Sun S Tai W Chen J Geng Q 2020 Molecular mechanism for antibody-dependent enhancement of coronavirus entry J. Virol. 94 5 pii: e02015-19 10.1128/JVI.02015-19 31826992
92 Wang SF Tseng SP Yen CH Yang JY Tsao CH Shen CW 2014 Antibody-dependent SARS coronavirus infection is mediated by antibodies against spike proteins Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 451 208 214 10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.07.090 25073113
93 Kim TW Lee JH Hung CF Peng S Roden R Wang MC 2004 Generation and characterization of DNA vaccines targeting the nucleocapsid protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus J. Virol. 78 4638 4645 10.1128/JVI.78.9.4638-4645.2004 15078946
95 Zhou P Yang XL Wang XG Hu B Zhang L Zhang W 2020 A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin Nature 579 270 273 10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7 32015507
96 Yeager CL Ashmun RA Williams RK Cardellichio CB Shapiro LH Look AT 1992 Human aminopeptidase N is a receptor for human coronavirus 229E Nature 357 420 422 10.1038/357420a0 1350662
97 Hofmann H Pyrc K van der Hoek L Geier M Berkhout B Pohlmann S 2005 Human coronavirus NL63 employs the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus receptor for cellular entry Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102 7988 7993 10.1073/pnas.0409465102 15897467
98 Tresnan DB Levis R Holmes KV 1996 Feline aminopeptidase N serves as a receptor for feline, canine, porcine, and human coronaviruses in serogroup I J. Virol. 70 8669 8674 10.1128/JVI.70.12.8669-8674.1996 8970993
99 Delmas B Gelfi J L'Haridon R Vogel LK Sjostrom H Noren O 1992 Aminopeptidase N is a major receptor for the entero-pathogenic coronavirus TGEV Nature. 357 417 420 10.1038/357417a0 1350661
100 Li W Moore MJ Vasilieva N Sui J Wong SK Berne MA 2003 Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a functional receptor for the SARS coronavirus Nature 426 450 454 10.1038/nature02145 14647384
101 Raj VS Mou H Smits SL Dekkers DH Muller MA Dijkman R 2013 Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 is a functional receptor for the emerging human coronavirus-EMC Nature 495 251 254 10.1038/nature12005 23486063
102 Krempl C Schultze B Herrler G 1995 Analysis of cellular receptors for human coronavirus OC43 Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 380 371 374 10.1007/978-1-4615-1899-0_60 8830510
103 Huang X Dong W Milewska A Golda A Qi Y Zhu QK 2015 Human coronavirus HKU1 spike protein uses O-acetylated sialic acid as an attachment receptor determinant and employs hemagglutinin-esterase protein as a receptor-destroying enzyme J. Virol. 89 7202 7213 10.1128/JVI.00854-15 25926653
104 Williams RK Jiang GS Holmes KV 1991 Receptor for mouse hepatitis virus is a member of the carcinoembryonic antigen family of glycoproteins Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88 5533 5536 10.1073/pnas.88.13.5533 1648219
※ AI-Helper는 부적절한 답변을 할 수 있습니다.