13～14세기 고려는 몽골[원]의 등장으로 종래의 형식적・의례적 책봉-조공관계에 실질적 요소들이 수반되는 동시에 새로운 문화를 수용하는 변화를 맞이하였다. 특히 몽골은 기존에 고려가 외교관계를 맺고 있던 국가・민족들과는 구별되는 문화양식을 지니고 있었고, 이는 ‘服飾’을 통하여 단적으로 드러난다. 고려・원 관계 성립시 고려는 원에 ‘不改土風’을 요구하며 ‘衣冠’을 가장 먼저 언급하였으나, 역설적으로 이후 원 복식문화가 고려사회에 확산되었다. 그럼에도 고려에 100여 년 간 착용된 원 복식문화의...
13～14세기 고려는 몽골[원]의 등장으로 종래의 형식적・의례적 책봉-조공관계에 실질적 요소들이 수반되는 동시에 새로운 문화를 수용하는 변화를 맞이하였다. 특히 몽골은 기존에 고려가 외교관계를 맺고 있던 국가・민족들과는 구별되는 문화양식을 지니고 있었고, 이는 ‘服飾’을 통하여 단적으로 드러난다. 고려・원 관계 성립시 고려는 원에 ‘不改土風’을 요구하며 ‘衣冠’을 가장 먼저 언급하였으나, 역설적으로 이후 원 복식문화가 고려사회에 확산되었다. 그럼에도 고려에 100여 년 간 착용된 원 복식문화의 구체적 양상과 고려의 복식문화가 변화하게 된 사회적 맥락에 관해서는 해명되지 못하였다. 이에 본 연구에서는 고려・원 관계의 전개에 따른 고려 복식문화의 변화 양상을 고찰함으로써, 고려가 자신들의 문화를 범주화하는 과정에 대하여 밝혀보고자 하였다.
고려와 몽골은 1218년(고종 5년) ‘형제맹약’을 계기로 직접적인 외교관계를 맺었으나, 양국의 문화적 충돌은 결국 전쟁으로 귀결되었다. 전쟁이 장기화되는 과정에서 被虜人과 投降人 등 일부 고려인들은 開剃辮髮 및 胡服을 착용하였으나, ‘복속’의 상징이라 할 수 있는 몽골 의관은 몽골 전쟁의 폭력성과 ‘韃靼’에 대한 멸시・부정적 인식과 결합되어 강한 거부감을 야기하였다. 1259년(고종 46년) 講和 이후에도 사대의 방식-親朝, 6事 등-을 둘러싸고 몽골과 갈등을 하던 고려는, 몽골[원]을 上國으로 받아들이되 무력을 앞세운 그들 문화에 함몰되지 않고 고려를 보존하는 방안을 모색한 결과, ‘不改土風’이라는 국속의 보존을 내세워 독자적인 왕조체제를 보장받았다. 따라서 이러한 분위기 속에서 원을 왕래하는 使臣, 禿魯花로 파견된 세자 등 일부 지배층을 중심으로 원의 복식문화가 착용되기도 하였으나, 원 복식은 수용의 대상이 되기 어려웠다.
충렬왕의 즉위는 고려에 원의 복식문화가 본격적으로 수용되는 계기가 되었다. 원의 不信이 지속되는 상황에서 충렬왕을 비롯하여 고려 지배층들은 첫 친조를 앞둔 1278년(충렬왕 4년) ‘衣冠改變令’을 반포하여, 원과 복식문화를 공유하고 있음을 가시적으로 보여줌으로써 그들과 우호적 신뢰관계를 다지고자 하였다. 이를 계기로 고려 관인사회에 원의 복식문화가 전면적으로 수용되어, 전국에 있는 관리들은 개체변발을 하고 胡服 양식의 袍와 몽골식 笠을 公服으로 착용하게 되었다. 충선왕대에는 重祚 및 원 황실 의례 참석을 통하여 원 중심의 세계질서를 직접 목도하고 황제권을 확인함에 따라, 왕실을 중심으로 원 복식이 적극적으로 수용되었다. 또한 원과의 인적・물적 교류가 증대하여 胡服과 胡禮는 고려사회에 널리 확산되었다. 그 결과 고려・원 관계 초기에 합의되었던 불개토풍 의식은 크게 희석되었고, 고려 역시도 원을 문명국으로 인식하여 원 문화를 개방적으로 받아들이며 고려 문화 범주의 폭을 확장시켰다.
그러나 1320년(충숙왕 7년) 충선왕의 吐番 유배를 시작으로 국왕의 압송과 억류, 심왕옹립운동, 중조, 입성 책동 등 국가의 위기가 초래되자 고려는 ‘원과 문화가 다른 고려’, 즉 ‘風俗不同’의 고려를 강조하였다. 이 과정에서 고려인들은 고려의 문화적 정체성에 대한 고민을 하였고, 고려인으로써 호복・호례를 하는 것 역시 문제 제기되었다. 더욱이 충목왕 즉위 이후 이제현・이곡 등 성리학자들이 ‘국속이 훼손된’, 즉 사회기강이 무너진 前代의 폐정을 개선하고자 유교적 풍속 개혁을 추진함에 따라, ‘원의 복식문화=前代의 惡習=사치・사회기강을 흐리는 것’으로 여겨지며 지양해야 할 개혁의 대상이 되기 시작하였다. 개체변발을 풀고 즉위한 공민왕은 ‘反元’ 개혁을 단행하였고, 곧이어 1357년(공민왕 6년)과 1367년(공민왕 16년)에는 난립하는 호복을 제한하기 위하여 관복제를 정비하기도 하였다. 1368년(공민왕 17년) 明이 등장하자 고려는 그들의 풍속을 바로잡을 수 있는 문화적 모델로 명이 보유한 華制에 주목하여, 공민왕～우왕대에 걸쳐 명에 관복을 요청하여 명과 새로운 외교관계가 구축되었음을 천명하는 동시에 이를 수용하여 자신들의 복식문화를 변화시켰다. 이에 원의 복식문화는 더 이상 ‘상국의 문화’가 아닌 ‘오랑캐의 문화’로 인식되어 각종 금령 조치들이 반포되었다.
이상의 연구를 통하여 고려가 국가의 위기 속에 자신들의 문화정체성을 공고하게 구성하기도 하였으나 동시에 문화의 범주가 고정된 것이 아니라 시대적 변화 및 대외관계 변화에 따라 끊임없이 재구성되는 역동적인 과정임을 확인하였다. 이러한 점은 ‘고려문화’라는 것이 반드시 이분법적으로 ‘외래문화’와 등치・대립되는 개념이 아니라, 둘 사이의 상호작용을 통하여 새로운 고려의 문화가 재정립되었음을 시사한다. 13～14세기 원의 복식문화가 고려사회에 유행하였다가 사라지는 일련의 과정은 고려의 문화 정체성이 시대의 변화에 조응하여 끊임없이 재구성되어 가는 것임을 상징적으로 보여준다.
13～14세기 고려는 몽골[원]의 등장으로 종래의 형식적・의례적 책봉-조공관계에 실질적 요소들이 수반되는 동시에 새로운 문화를 수용하는 변화를 맞이하였다. 특히 몽골은 기존에 고려가 외교관계를 맺고 있던 국가・민족들과는 구별되는 문화양식을 지니고 있었고, 이는 ‘服飾’을 통하여 단적으로 드러난다. 고려・원 관계 성립시 고려는 원에 ‘不改土風’을 요구하며 ‘衣冠’을 가장 먼저 언급하였으나, 역설적으로 이후 원 복식문화가 고려사회에 확산되었다. 그럼에도 고려에 100여 년 간 착용된 원 복식문화의 구체적 양상과 고려의 복식문화가 변화하게 된 사회적 맥락에 관해서는 해명되지 못하였다. 이에 본 연구에서는 고려・원 관계의 전개에 따른 고려 복식문화의 변화 양상을 고찰함으로써, 고려가 자신들의 문화를 범주화하는 과정에 대하여 밝혀보고자 하였다.
고려와 몽골은 1218년(고종 5년) ‘형제맹약’을 계기로 직접적인 외교관계를 맺었으나, 양국의 문화적 충돌은 결국 전쟁으로 귀결되었다. 전쟁이 장기화되는 과정에서 被虜人과 投降人 등 일부 고려인들은 開剃辮髮 및 胡服을 착용하였으나, ‘복속’의 상징이라 할 수 있는 몽골 의관은 몽골 전쟁의 폭력성과 ‘韃靼’에 대한 멸시・부정적 인식과 결합되어 강한 거부감을 야기하였다. 1259년(고종 46년) 講和 이후에도 사대의 방식-親朝, 6事 등-을 둘러싸고 몽골과 갈등을 하던 고려는, 몽골[원]을 上國으로 받아들이되 무력을 앞세운 그들 문화에 함몰되지 않고 고려를 보존하는 방안을 모색한 결과, ‘不改土風’이라는 국속의 보존을 내세워 독자적인 왕조체제를 보장받았다. 따라서 이러한 분위기 속에서 원을 왕래하는 使臣, 禿魯花로 파견된 세자 등 일부 지배층을 중심으로 원의 복식문화가 착용되기도 하였으나, 원 복식은 수용의 대상이 되기 어려웠다.
충렬왕의 즉위는 고려에 원의 복식문화가 본격적으로 수용되는 계기가 되었다. 원의 不信이 지속되는 상황에서 충렬왕을 비롯하여 고려 지배층들은 첫 친조를 앞둔 1278년(충렬왕 4년) ‘衣冠改變令’을 반포하여, 원과 복식문화를 공유하고 있음을 가시적으로 보여줌으로써 그들과 우호적 신뢰관계를 다지고자 하였다. 이를 계기로 고려 관인사회에 원의 복식문화가 전면적으로 수용되어, 전국에 있는 관리들은 개체변발을 하고 胡服 양식의 袍와 몽골식 笠을 公服으로 착용하게 되었다. 충선왕대에는 重祚 및 원 황실 의례 참석을 통하여 원 중심의 세계질서를 직접 목도하고 황제권을 확인함에 따라, 왕실을 중심으로 원 복식이 적극적으로 수용되었다. 또한 원과의 인적・물적 교류가 증대하여 胡服과 胡禮는 고려사회에 널리 확산되었다. 그 결과 고려・원 관계 초기에 합의되었던 불개토풍 의식은 크게 희석되었고, 고려 역시도 원을 문명국으로 인식하여 원 문화를 개방적으로 받아들이며 고려 문화 범주의 폭을 확장시켰다.
그러나 1320년(충숙왕 7년) 충선왕의 吐番 유배를 시작으로 국왕의 압송과 억류, 심왕옹립운동, 중조, 입성 책동 등 국가의 위기가 초래되자 고려는 ‘원과 문화가 다른 고려’, 즉 ‘風俗不同’의 고려를 강조하였다. 이 과정에서 고려인들은 고려의 문화적 정체성에 대한 고민을 하였고, 고려인으로써 호복・호례를 하는 것 역시 문제 제기되었다. 더욱이 충목왕 즉위 이후 이제현・이곡 등 성리학자들이 ‘국속이 훼손된’, 즉 사회기강이 무너진 前代의 폐정을 개선하고자 유교적 풍속 개혁을 추진함에 따라, ‘원의 복식문화=前代의 惡習=사치・사회기강을 흐리는 것’으로 여겨지며 지양해야 할 개혁의 대상이 되기 시작하였다. 개체변발을 풀고 즉위한 공민왕은 ‘反元’ 개혁을 단행하였고, 곧이어 1357년(공민왕 6년)과 1367년(공민왕 16년)에는 난립하는 호복을 제한하기 위하여 관복제를 정비하기도 하였다. 1368년(공민왕 17년) 明이 등장하자 고려는 그들의 풍속을 바로잡을 수 있는 문화적 모델로 명이 보유한 華制에 주목하여, 공민왕～우왕대에 걸쳐 명에 관복을 요청하여 명과 새로운 외교관계가 구축되었음을 천명하는 동시에 이를 수용하여 자신들의 복식문화를 변화시켰다. 이에 원의 복식문화는 더 이상 ‘상국의 문화’가 아닌 ‘오랑캐의 문화’로 인식되어 각종 금령 조치들이 반포되었다.
이상의 연구를 통하여 고려가 국가의 위기 속에 자신들의 문화정체성을 공고하게 구성하기도 하였으나 동시에 문화의 범주가 고정된 것이 아니라 시대적 변화 및 대외관계 변화에 따라 끊임없이 재구성되는 역동적인 과정임을 확인하였다. 이러한 점은 ‘고려문화’라는 것이 반드시 이분법적으로 ‘외래문화’와 등치・대립되는 개념이 아니라, 둘 사이의 상호작용을 통하여 새로운 고려의 문화가 재정립되었음을 시사한다. 13～14세기 원의 복식문화가 고려사회에 유행하였다가 사라지는 일련의 과정은 고려의 문화 정체성이 시대의 변화에 조응하여 끊임없이 재구성되어 가는 것임을 상징적으로 보여준다.
With the appearance of the Mongols, Koryŏ in the 13-14th centuries encountered many changes. These changes included practical aspects such as the ceremonial tributary relationship, as well as accepting new and advanced cultures. Particularly, the Mongols had a culture that was distinctive from...
With the appearance of the Mongols, Koryŏ in the 13-14th centuries encountered many changes. These changes included practical aspects such as the ceremonial tributary relationship, as well as accepting new and advanced cultures. Particularly, the Mongols had a culture that was distinctive from other nations and peoples that Koryŏ already had diplomatic relations with. This distinctiveness is most apparent in their dress and attire. When the Koryŏ-Yuan relations were first established, Koryŏ requested for the Yuan not to change the national manners and customs (pulgaet’op’ung, ‘不改土風’) mentioning the attire first. However, later on the Mongolian Clothing was paradoxically adopted by the Koryŏ society. Despite these changes, existing literature has not been able to explain the social context in which the detailed condition of Mongolian Clothing which expanded over the period of a hundred years as well as how the clothing culture of Koryŏ changed. Therefore, the present research attempts to reveal the process of how Koryŏ categorized its own culture by examining the transformation of Koryŏ attire according to the development of the Koryŏ-Yuan relations.
Koryŏ’s direct diplomatic relations with the Mongols began after the ‘pact of brotherhood’ that was signed in 1218. However, the Mongols who lived a nomadic life in the northern territories had different customs for the way they treated their guests and for the tributary system. As such the Mongols and Koryŏ faced cultural struggles, and these differences eventually led to a war. During the prolonged war between Koryŏ and Mongols, Koryŏ people who surrendered and were war captives wore Mongolian clothing (hobok, 胡服) and shaved their heads as Mongolian hair style (half shaved, half braided). However, the Mongolian attire that symbolized subjugation caused a strong negative sentiment, combined with the violence of the war as well as the disdainful and negative perception towards the Mongols.
Even after the peace agreement in 1259, the Mongols and Koryŏ came into conflicts over Koryŏ Kings’ attendance at the Yuan Court (親朝) and the fulfillment of the six offices (6事). While the Mongols wanted to promote the governing and subjugating the northern region that they had been using in their preexisting nomadic life, Koryŏ wanted to treat the Mongols in the ways that they had established with other tributary systems. Koryŏ had to accept the Mongols as a higher state but at the same time search for ways to ensure Koryŏ’s profits without being submerged under the military force of the Mongolian culture. As a result, Koryŏ put forth the request for the Yuan not to change the national manners and customs (pulgaet’op’ung) which would preserve the national customs and secured the autonomous kingship system. Within such atmosphere, Mongolian Clothing were worn by people in the ruling class such as the crown prince who was deployed as ambassadors and royal captives (禿魯花) traveling to Yuan, but it was not received as a positive phenomenon.
However, after King Ch’ungnyŏl ascended the throne, Mongolian Clothing was actively adopted in Koryŏ. As Yuan’s distrust continued, Koryŏ sought to use clothing and attire as a method to overcome the diplomatic difficulties with the Yuan, and in 1278 with the first Koryŏ Kings’ Attendance at the Yuan Court ahead, King Ch’ungnyŏl announced the Ordinance of Attire Reform (‘衣冠改變令’). By visibly exhibiting that Koryŏ shared the clothing culture with the Yuan, Koryŏ had attempted to secure a friendly relationship of trust with the Yuan. With the Order to Reform the Attire, all government officials around the country changed their hair style to the Mongolian style, wore Mongolian clothing style robes, and put on Mongolian style hats as official attire. As such, Mongolian Clothing was fully adapted to the Koryŏ government official society. Regarding such change in the clothing culture of Koryŏ, the people of Koryŏ believed that the change did not threaten their ‘national customs.’ This sentiment shows that they can change their customs as necessary when Koryŏ’s stability is threatened, but they would preserve their culture if Koryŏ did not clash with the Yuan dynasty. This reveals the relative and practical aspect of the Koryŏ culture.
During the reign of King Ch’ungsŏn, the Koryŏ-Yuan relations expanded, and the adaptation of Mongolian Clothing also increased. Through the reigns of King Ch’ungnyŏl and King Ch’ungsŏn as well as the ceremonial attendance to the Yuan imperial family, Koryŏ witnessed at first hand the world order with Yuan as the center, attesting the authority of the imperial throne. As such, they changed the existing royal robe to the purple robe (chap’o, 紫袍), and in the process of active participation in the Yuan dynasty, Koryŏ formed relations through the attire exchange with the Yuan royal court. Through such efforts Koryŏ secured a stable position within the Yuan territories. In the process, various ritual customs and material customs of the Yuan were adopted in the Koryŏ society. The trace of various attire exchanges are evident in books Pakt’ongsa (朴通事) and Nogŏldae (老乞大), and excavated archaeological artifacts show that the Mongolian Clothing that was enjoyed by the ruling class was expanded widely in the Koryŏ culture as the human resource and material exchanges with the Yuan increased. Mongolian style clothing and Mongolian style ceremonies expanded throughout the Koryŏ society. As a result, the awareness of not changing the national manners and customs (pulgaet’op’ung) that was agreed upon in the early stages of Koryŏ-Yuan relations had greatly been diluted. Koryŏ also came to acknowledge Yuan as a civilized nation and openly accepted their culture, greatly increasing the rage of Koryŏ culture.
However, as Koryŏ-Yuan relations worsened and the existence of Koryŏ came under threat, the attitude towards Mongolian Clothing also changed. Starting with the exile of King Ch’ungsŏn to Tibet in 1320, the Koryŏ king’s transfer to prison and detainment, the movement to make the Shim family king of Koryŏ, and the scheme to penetrate the Koryŏ castle five times were seen as national crises. As such, in the process of arguing for the preservation of the Koryŏ kingship and of the Koryŏ dynasty, Koryŏ began to emphasize that ‘Koryŏ has a different culture than Yuan.’ The period of over thirty years since then was a period in which ‘national manners and customs’ was spoken the most number of times. During this period the cultural identity of Koryŏ came under much discussion and discernment. The problem of Mongolian style clothing and Mongolian style ceremonies also came to the surface as an issue to be examined. After the ascension of King Ch’ungmok to the throne, Neo-Confucian scholars like Yi Chehyŏn and Yi Kok understood such practices of the previous generation as ‘having destroyed the national manners and customs.’ In other words, they considered this as the destruction of social discipline, and they promoted the project of reforming the manners and customs in Confucian ways. In particular, the process of reforming misgovernment pointed to Mongolian Clothing as the vice of the previous generation, a practice that was extravagant and destroying social discipline. Thus, Mongolian Clothing became the target of reform.
Therefore, the series of ‘anti-Yuan’ reforms after King Kongmin ascended the throne was continued under King Ch’ungmok’s reign. King Kongmin untied his Mongolian-style braids when he ascended to the throne. In 1357, he regulated the attire of the people according to feng shui and toch’am. In order to restrict Mongolian clothing that filled the Koryŏ society, he newly organized the official attire in 1367. However, even in the newly organized official attire, the standards were based on Mongolian Clothing. As such, it was impossible to purge all the Yuan customs that had diffused through all of Koryŏ society for a hundred years. Furthermore, when the Ming (明) appeared as a new authority over the continent, Koryŏ paid close attention to Ming’s institution as a cultural model to correct the manners and customs of Koryŏ. Through the reigns of King Kongmin and King U, Koryŏ requested the official attire of Ming. By doing so, Koryŏ clarified the establishment of its diplomatic relations with Ming and at the same time changed their clothing customs. Thus, Mongolian Clothing was no longer considered a ‘culture of a higher state’ but a ‘culture of barbarians,’ and various measures of prohibition were announced. This indicates the multidimensional aspect of Koryŏ culture, a culture in which a cultural transition became the representative national manners and customs.
Consequently, this research explains that while Koryŏ stably formulated their cultural identity amidst national crises, its cultural boundaries were not fixed. Koryŏ’s cultural formation was a dynamic process that was reformulated endlessly, corresponding to the changes of the times as well as to the changes in the diplomatic relations. In other words, this research suggests that ‘Koryŏ culture’ cannot be defined in a dichotomous manner as being either equivalent or contentious to ‘foreign culture;’ rather, through the interaction with foreign cultures, new Koryŏ customs were reformulated. The process of the popularization and then disappearance of Mongolian Clothing in the Koryŏ society throughout the 13-14th centuries is symbolic of how Koryŏ’s cultural identity was ceaselessly reformulated in accordance with the periodic changes.
With the appearance of the Mongols, Koryŏ in the 13-14th centuries encountered many changes. These changes included practical aspects such as the ceremonial tributary relationship, as well as accepting new and advanced cultures. Particularly, the Mongols had a culture that was distinctive from other nations and peoples that Koryŏ already had diplomatic relations with. This distinctiveness is most apparent in their dress and attire. When the Koryŏ-Yuan relations were first established, Koryŏ requested for the Yuan not to change the national manners and customs (pulgaet’op’ung, ‘不改土風’) mentioning the attire first. However, later on the Mongolian Clothing was paradoxically adopted by the Koryŏ society. Despite these changes, existing literature has not been able to explain the social context in which the detailed condition of Mongolian Clothing which expanded over the period of a hundred years as well as how the clothing culture of Koryŏ changed. Therefore, the present research attempts to reveal the process of how Koryŏ categorized its own culture by examining the transformation of Koryŏ attire according to the development of the Koryŏ-Yuan relations.
Koryŏ’s direct diplomatic relations with the Mongols began after the ‘pact of brotherhood’ that was signed in 1218. However, the Mongols who lived a nomadic life in the northern territories had different customs for the way they treated their guests and for the tributary system. As such the Mongols and Koryŏ faced cultural struggles, and these differences eventually led to a war. During the prolonged war between Koryŏ and Mongols, Koryŏ people who surrendered and were war captives wore Mongolian clothing (hobok, 胡服) and shaved their heads as Mongolian hair style (half shaved, half braided). However, the Mongolian attire that symbolized subjugation caused a strong negative sentiment, combined with the violence of the war as well as the disdainful and negative perception towards the Mongols.
Even after the peace agreement in 1259, the Mongols and Koryŏ came into conflicts over Koryŏ Kings’ attendance at the Yuan Court (親朝) and the fulfillment of the six offices (6事). While the Mongols wanted to promote the governing and subjugating the northern region that they had been using in their preexisting nomadic life, Koryŏ wanted to treat the Mongols in the ways that they had established with other tributary systems. Koryŏ had to accept the Mongols as a higher state but at the same time search for ways to ensure Koryŏ’s profits without being submerged under the military force of the Mongolian culture. As a result, Koryŏ put forth the request for the Yuan not to change the national manners and customs (pulgaet’op’ung) which would preserve the national customs and secured the autonomous kingship system. Within such atmosphere, Mongolian Clothing were worn by people in the ruling class such as the crown prince who was deployed as ambassadors and royal captives (禿魯花) traveling to Yuan, but it was not received as a positive phenomenon.
However, after King Ch’ungnyŏl ascended the throne, Mongolian Clothing was actively adopted in Koryŏ. As Yuan’s distrust continued, Koryŏ sought to use clothing and attire as a method to overcome the diplomatic difficulties with the Yuan, and in 1278 with the first Koryŏ Kings’ Attendance at the Yuan Court ahead, King Ch’ungnyŏl announced the Ordinance of Attire Reform (‘衣冠改變令’). By visibly exhibiting that Koryŏ shared the clothing culture with the Yuan, Koryŏ had attempted to secure a friendly relationship of trust with the Yuan. With the Order to Reform the Attire, all government officials around the country changed their hair style to the Mongolian style, wore Mongolian clothing style robes, and put on Mongolian style hats as official attire. As such, Mongolian Clothing was fully adapted to the Koryŏ government official society. Regarding such change in the clothing culture of Koryŏ, the people of Koryŏ believed that the change did not threaten their ‘national customs.’ This sentiment shows that they can change their customs as necessary when Koryŏ’s stability is threatened, but they would preserve their culture if Koryŏ did not clash with the Yuan dynasty. This reveals the relative and practical aspect of the Koryŏ culture.
During the reign of King Ch’ungsŏn, the Koryŏ-Yuan relations expanded, and the adaptation of Mongolian Clothing also increased. Through the reigns of King Ch’ungnyŏl and King Ch’ungsŏn as well as the ceremonial attendance to the Yuan imperial family, Koryŏ witnessed at first hand the world order with Yuan as the center, attesting the authority of the imperial throne. As such, they changed the existing royal robe to the purple robe (chap’o, 紫袍), and in the process of active participation in the Yuan dynasty, Koryŏ formed relations through the attire exchange with the Yuan royal court. Through such efforts Koryŏ secured a stable position within the Yuan territories. In the process, various ritual customs and material customs of the Yuan were adopted in the Koryŏ society. The trace of various attire exchanges are evident in books Pakt’ongsa (朴通事) and Nogŏldae (老乞大), and excavated archaeological artifacts show that the Mongolian Clothing that was enjoyed by the ruling class was expanded widely in the Koryŏ culture as the human resource and material exchanges with the Yuan increased. Mongolian style clothing and Mongolian style ceremonies expanded throughout the Koryŏ society. As a result, the awareness of not changing the national manners and customs (pulgaet’op’ung) that was agreed upon in the early stages of Koryŏ-Yuan relations had greatly been diluted. Koryŏ also came to acknowledge Yuan as a civilized nation and openly accepted their culture, greatly increasing the rage of Koryŏ culture.
However, as Koryŏ-Yuan relations worsened and the existence of Koryŏ came under threat, the attitude towards Mongolian Clothing also changed. Starting with the exile of King Ch’ungsŏn to Tibet in 1320, the Koryŏ king’s transfer to prison and detainment, the movement to make the Shim family king of Koryŏ, and the scheme to penetrate the Koryŏ castle five times were seen as national crises. As such, in the process of arguing for the preservation of the Koryŏ kingship and of the Koryŏ dynasty, Koryŏ began to emphasize that ‘Koryŏ has a different culture than Yuan.’ The period of over thirty years since then was a period in which ‘national manners and customs’ was spoken the most number of times. During this period the cultural identity of Koryŏ came under much discussion and discernment. The problem of Mongolian style clothing and Mongolian style ceremonies also came to the surface as an issue to be examined. After the ascension of King Ch’ungmok to the throne, Neo-Confucian scholars like Yi Chehyŏn and Yi Kok understood such practices of the previous generation as ‘having destroyed the national manners and customs.’ In other words, they considered this as the destruction of social discipline, and they promoted the project of reforming the manners and customs in Confucian ways. In particular, the process of reforming misgovernment pointed to Mongolian Clothing as the vice of the previous generation, a practice that was extravagant and destroying social discipline. Thus, Mongolian Clothing became the target of reform.
Therefore, the series of ‘anti-Yuan’ reforms after King Kongmin ascended the throne was continued under King Ch’ungmok’s reign. King Kongmin untied his Mongolian-style braids when he ascended to the throne. In 1357, he regulated the attire of the people according to feng shui and toch’am. In order to restrict Mongolian clothing that filled the Koryŏ society, he newly organized the official attire in 1367. However, even in the newly organized official attire, the standards were based on Mongolian Clothing. As such, it was impossible to purge all the Yuan customs that had diffused through all of Koryŏ society for a hundred years. Furthermore, when the Ming (明) appeared as a new authority over the continent, Koryŏ paid close attention to Ming’s institution as a cultural model to correct the manners and customs of Koryŏ. Through the reigns of King Kongmin and King U, Koryŏ requested the official attire of Ming. By doing so, Koryŏ clarified the establishment of its diplomatic relations with Ming and at the same time changed their clothing customs. Thus, Mongolian Clothing was no longer considered a ‘culture of a higher state’ but a ‘culture of barbarians,’ and various measures of prohibition were announced. This indicates the multidimensional aspect of Koryŏ culture, a culture in which a cultural transition became the representative national manners and customs.
Consequently, this research explains that while Koryŏ stably formulated their cultural identity amidst national crises, its cultural boundaries were not fixed. Koryŏ’s cultural formation was a dynamic process that was reformulated endlessly, corresponding to the changes of the times as well as to the changes in the diplomatic relations. In other words, this research suggests that ‘Koryŏ culture’ cannot be defined in a dichotomous manner as being either equivalent or contentious to ‘foreign culture;’ rather, through the interaction with foreign cultures, new Koryŏ customs were reformulated. The process of the popularization and then disappearance of Mongolian Clothing in the Koryŏ society throughout the 13-14th centuries is symbolic of how Koryŏ’s cultural identity was ceaselessly reformulated in accordance with the periodic changes.
주제어
#고려 복식문화 원 복식문화 고려-원 관계 不改土風 衣冠改變令 胡服 開剃辮髮 風土不同 國俗 cultural identity. state traditions Koryŏ clothing Mongol clothing Koryŏ-Yuan relationship pulgaet’op’ung (不改土風) the Ordinance of Attire Reform hobok (胡服) Mongolian hair
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