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문제 정의
- This study examined the cognitive consequences of constructivist teaching practices on the acquisition and transfer of programming. Students worked on a variety of programming and design problems in either an inquiry or reflective instructional context.
제안 방법
- As indicated previously, this study aimed to examine student acquisition of four levels of programming knowledge, transfer of the knowledge, and the relation between socially constituted beliefs and individual performance. Table 1 displays the wide range of constructs and measures employed in this study.
- The participants were rank ordered within each grade on the general composite score and assigned randomly by alternate ranks to one of two instructional conditions: the inquiry-based and reflective context. Students in both instructional contexts worked for a total of eighteen 40-minute instructional sessions spanning three months of the school calendar. The order of the meeting times was counterbalanced between instructional conditions at each grade to avoid teacher-practice effects.
- The participants were rank ordered within each grade on the general composite score and assigned randomly by alternate ranks to one of two instructional conditions: the inquiry-based and reflective context. Students in both instructional contexts worked for a total of eighteen 40-minute instructional sessions spanning three months of the school calendar.
- The rationale is to help students develop problem schemata and to bridge from their knowledge of a programming language to related contexts. The questions are also designed to help students distinguish necessary commands from superfluous commands when they design a program.
- These research findings collectively suggest fruitful targets for reflection because more mindful consideration of any or all of them may have a powerful impact on learning. The research findings guided the development of constructivist teaching practices, each of which was intended to promote more mindful consideration of a programming language[5][26]. To this end, the present study instigated four general classroom practices, each designed to focus on a key target for constructivist teaching and learning in the context of programming, as follows: (a) dialogue about design principles and real audiences for program to promote reflection about programming as design rather than as simply writing code, (b) provision of programming templates to exemplify and promote reflection about key principles of programming design, like modularity, (c) summarization of the action of programming code to promote reflection about the action of chunks of code rather than lines of code, and (d) compare-contrast questions to help students reflect dialogically about relations among different programs or chunks of code, or about relations between programming and everyday experiences.
- All the subjects had some previous experience with computers at or outside of school in a variety of subject areas. The subjects were rank ordered within each grade on the general composite score and assigned to instructional contexts via a stratified random sampling procedure. They remained in the same instructional contexts throughout the study.
- Third, to analyze the relation between the social, here represented by a set of communally shared design practices, and the individual in the teaching and learning process of programming.
- This study attempted to design a program of constructivist instruction by considering previous research about programming. Taken as a whole, the research on programming supports the need to promote reflection about programming activity, especially because the very interactivity of computer programming can disguise the virtues of considered action.
대상 데이터
- The participants in the study were students at two grades: twenty-four third-grade and twenty-six sixth-grade students from an elementary school located in a metropolitan school district.
이론/모형
- The study employed a randomized block design[3]. The primary analytic technique used was the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), with each student's standardized score on the blocking variable, the composite of working memory and reading ability, serving as the covariate.
성능/효과
- First, as expected, the reflective intervention made no difference for students' recall of commands. Second, consistent with the chain-of-consequences hypothesis, the highest level of between-group differences was centered at the semantic level in the third grade and the strategic level in the sixth grade.
- The correlation between student performance on debugging and error detection was substantial at each grade: r (22) = .77, p < .05, and r (24) = .60, p < .05, respectively.
- The results of the analysis applied to the measure of the mastery of move and turn commands indicated significant differences between instructional conditions, F (1, 45) = 18.84, p < .01, but not between grades.
후속연구
- Transfer of general skills was often the lodestone of earlier research about the utility of learning programming languages, but more than a decade of research suggests otherwise. While important and interesting findings have been revealed, the study needs to be replicated. In addition, Future research employing other types of approaches to programming instruction may be worth further investigation.
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